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Cartridges and
Firearm
Identification

Robert E. Walker

CRC Press

Taylor &. Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

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Version Date: 2012907

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Contents

Foreword xv

Preface xvii

Acknowledgments xix

About the Author xxi

1 The World of Firearms and Ammunition 1

Introduction 1

Balancing Firearm Safety with Evidence Preservation 1

Crimes Involving Firearms and Ammunition 5

Firearm “Expert”? A Complex Question 8

Exculpatory Evidence 10

The Frye and Daubert Standards 11

Gunsmiths versus Armorers 12

Firearm Examiner 14

Firearm Subject-Matter Expert 14

Basics: Understanding What Makes a Firearm Operate 15

Trigger Travel 16

Single-Action Firearms 17

Double-Action Firearms 18

Sequence of Operation 19

Methods of Operation 20

Gas Impingement 20

Gas-Piston Operation 21

Recoil Operation 23

Blowback Operation 23

Recoil-Operated versus Blowback Firearms 25

Striker-Fired Firearms, a Contemporary Trend 27

Emergence of the Polymer-Framed Pistol 28

Manually Operated Firearms 30

Breech-Foaded Firearms 30

Fever-Action Firearms 31

Bolt-Action Firearms 31

Slide- or Pump-Action Firearms 32

2 Ammunition Cartridges 33

Ammunition: A Backdrop 33

Cartridge Identification by Dimensions, Names, and Identifiers 38

Caliber 38

vii

Contents

viii

Hyphenations, Names, and Other Identifiers 40

Metric System 42

Cartridges Having Caliber and Metric Designations 43

Other Identifiers 43

Shot Shells 44

Components of Fixed Ammunition 46

Cartridge Casing 46

Materials Used in Construction of Cartridge Casings 49

Brass 52

Aluminum 53

Steel 54

Nickel Plating 54

Shot Shells 54

Paper 55

Plastic 56

Polymer-Cased Cartridges 56

Caseless Ammunition 58

Ignition Systems and Propellants 60

Center-Fire Cartridges 61

Berden Priming 61

Boxer Priming 62

Rim-Fire Cartridges 62

Black Powder 62

Smokeless Powder 63

Lesmoke Powder 65

Action Time 65

Electric Priming 65

Projectiles 66

Commonly Used Abbreviations to Identify Projectile Styles 66

Cannelures 67

Ball Projectiles and Variations 67

Controlled-Expansion Projectiles 72

Open-Tip Match 75

Wad Cutter and Semi-Wad Cutter 78

Armor Piercing 78

Tres Haute Vitesse (THV) 79

Van Bruaene Rik (VBR) 79

Frangible Projectiles 80

Blended-Metal Projectiles 82

Glaser Safety Slug 82

Tracer Ammunition 83

Explosive Projectiles 84

Dummy, Drilled, and Inert 86

Blank Cartridges 86

Subsonic Cartridges 88

Sabots 89

Gyro Jet 90

Contents

Shot Pellets 90

Slugs 91

Duplex Shot Shells 92

Other Types of Shot Shell Loads 93

Less-Lethal Munitions 93

Training Ammunition 96

Marking Cartridges 96

Short-Range Training Ammunition 97

Projectile Jacketing 98

Metal Jacketing 99

Metal Washes and Plating 99

Nyclad 100

Other Composite Jacketing Materials 100

Nonjacketed 101

Projectile Mass 101

Projectile Material Composition 101

Materials Selection 101

Lead 102

Solid-Metal Projectiles 102

Shot Pellets 103

Wooden Projectiles 103

Hand Loads, Reloads, and Wildcats 104

Caliber Interchangeability 106

Identification Markings 110

3 Cartridge Head Stamps 115

Cartridge Head Stamp Overview 115

Head Stamp Elements 115

Counterfeit Head Stamps 116

Rim-Fire Head Stamps 117

NATO Identification Marking 117

U.S. Government Arsenal Markings 118

Process of the Identification of a Cartridge, Cartridge Casing, or Projectile 118
Head Stamp and Manufacturing Practices for Selected Nations 125

Albania 125

Argentina 125

Australia 126

Austria 127

Bangladesh 127

Belgium 127

Bolivia 128

Brazil 128

Burkina Faso 128

Burma 129

Cambodia 129

Cameroon 129

Contents

Canada

129

Chile

130

China

130

Colombia

131

Cuba

131

Denmark

132

Dominican Republic

132

Egypt

132

Ethiopia

133

Finland

133

France

133

Germany (Prewar, West Germany, Reunified Germany)

134

Greece

135

Guatemala

136

India

136

Indonesia

136

Iran

137

Ireland

137

Israel

137

Italy

138

Japan

138

Kenya

139

Lithuania

139

Malaysia

139

Mexico

140

Morocco

140

Netherlands

140

New Zealand

140

Nigeria

141

North Korea

141

Norway

141

Pakistan

141

Peru

142

The Philippines

142

Portugal

142

Saudi Arabia

143

Scotland

143

Singapore

143

South Africa

143

South Korea

144

Spain

144

Sudan

145

Sweden

145

Switzerland

145

Taiwan

146

Tanzania

146

Thailand

146

Contents

Turkey 146

Uganda 146

United Arab Emirates 147

United Kingdom 147

Venezuela 148

Zimbabwe 148

The Russian Federation, Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact, and Eastern Europe 148

Soviet Factory Codes 150

The Russian Federation 151

Federal State Enterprise Production’s Amursk Cartridge Plant “Vympel” 152
Joint Stock Company’s Barnaul Machine Tool Plant 152

Joint Stock Company Tula Cartridge Works 153

Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant 154

Novosibirsk Low Voltage Equipment Plant 154

Ulyanovsk Machinery Plant 155

Wolf Performance Ammunition 155

Other Eastern European Sources 156

Bulgaria 156

Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic) 157

East Germany 158

Hungary 159

Poland 159

Romania 160

Ukraine 160

Yugoslavia 161

4 Firearms 163

Introduction 163

United States Domestic Firearm Production for 2011 165

Firearm Import Trends 166

Contemporary Trends in the Federal Prosecution of Firearms Offenses 166
Firearm Classification Types 167

Handguns 167

Revolvers 168

Semiautomatic Pistols 178

Single-Shot Handguns 187

General Safety Issues 188

Hang Fires 188

Squib Loads 188

Slam Fire 188

Long Guns 189

Long-Gun Safety Systems 189

Rifles 189

Short-Barreled Rifles 196

Weapon Made from a Rifle 199

Shotguns 199

Xll

Contents

Drillings 203

Short-Barreled Shotguns 203

Weapon Made from a Shotgun 204

Destructive Devices 205

Suppressors, Silencers, Moderators, Mufflers, and Cans 206

Machine Guns 215

Improvised Firearms 221

Any Other Weapons 222

Antique Firearms 223

Air Guns 224

Ammunition-Feeding Devices 227

Magazines 227

Shared Magazine Architecture 229

Drum Magazines 229

Magazine Components 230

The Clip 231

Ammunition Belts 233

Internal Magazines 233

Firearm Alterations and Modifications 233

Finish, Refinishing, Colors 234

Firearm Chassis 235

Mechanical and Functional Modifications 236

Machine Gun Conversions 237

Field-Testing Procedure for Automatic Weapons 239

Closed Bolt-Action Field-Test Procedure 240

Open-Bolt-Action Procedure 240

Case Studies of Commonly Converted Firearms 240

MAC-Pattern Firearms 240

Heckler & Koch 242

AR-Pattern Firearms 244

Replacing Semiautomatic Parts with Machine Gun Parts 245

Drop-In Auto Sear 246

Lightning Link 247

Open-Bolt Modification 248

Indicia of a Converted AR Firearm 248

Receiver Markings 248

Intratec Pistols 250

Glock Pistols 251

SKS (Simonov Carbine Self-Loading) 252

AK-Pattern Firearms 253

Ml Carbine 254

Assorted Other Conversions 256

Colt 1911 and 1911A1 257

Browning Hi Power 257

Marlin/Glenfield Model 60 258

STEN Gun 258

Devices Designed to Simulate Fully Automatic Firing 259

Contents xiii

Firearm Receiver 260

DEWATS, Unserviceable Firearms, and Inert Firearms 262

Manufacturers 262

Manufacture by Multiple Firms 265

Historical Footnotes on Older, Common Nameplates 265

Iver Johnson 265

Marlin Firearms 266

Harrington & Richardson 266

High Standard 266

Savage Arms 267

Firearms Imports & Exports 267

RG Industries 268

Hermann Weihrauch 268

Department Store Firearms 269

Sears & Roebuck 269

Montgomery Ward 271

Western Auto Supply Company 271

Kmart 271

J.C. Penney 271

Firearm Designs Manufactured by Multiple Manufacturers 274

Walther PP and PPK 274

Model 1911 and 1911A1 276

Beretta 92 278

M14, MIA, and Variants 278

Armalite Rifle 280

Kalashnikov-Pattern Firearm 285

Heckler & Koch G.3 291

FN FAF and the FN FNC 293

Modular Weapon Systems Concept 294

Firearms Identification Methodology 299

Identification of a Firearm from Photographic or Video Images 300

5 Firearm Markings 303

Serial Numbers 303

Serial Number Structures and Practices 304

Firearms Absent Serial Numbers 307

Firearms Bearing Multiple, Different Serial Numbers 308

Renumbered Firearms 308

BATFE Serial Number Traces and E-Trace 309

Methods Used to Apply Serial Numbers 310

Obliteration, Alteration, or Defacing of Serial Numbers 311

Methods Observed Used to Alter, Obliterate, or Deface Serial Numbers 312
Scratching 313

Gouging 313

Grinding, Sanding, or Other Abrasives 314

Drilling 314

XIV

Contents

Punch 314

Peening 314

Filling 314

Chemical 315

Mechanical Serial Number Restoration Techniques 315

Chemical Serial Number Restoration Techniques 316

Nondestructive Serial Number Restoration Techniques 317

Digital Imagery 317

X-Ray 318

Ultrasonic Cavitation 318

Magnetic Particle Inspection Process or Magnetic Flux 318

Variations of Temperature as a Restorative Technique 319

Best Practices for Serial Number Restoration 319

Photographic Considerations 320

Frozen, Fixed, and Environmentally Exposed Firearms 320

Model Designations 321

Import Markings 323

Other Markings 325

National Crests 326

Arsenal Markings 327

Patent Dates, Legends, and Other Information 329

Proof Marks 329

U.S. Commercial Proof Marks 330

Proof Marks Used around the World 330

United States Military 331

References 337

Foreword

At a time when crime scene television shows are all the rage among the civilian popula¬
tion, knowledge of forensics—especially firearms—is of paramount importance to the
crime scene analyst, police detectives, and attorneys for both the prosecution and the
defense alike. Cartridges and Firearm Identification encapsulates everything the fire¬
arms practitioner needs to know, whether he or she is an analyst, law enforcement officer,
or attorney.

As a former prosecutor for both the state and federal governments, I can attest to the
fact that knowledge of firearms and their inner workings is essential to any investigation of
a firearms offense, as well as any litigation that follows. As a former special assistant with
the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Middle District of Florida, I prosecuted many firearms
offenses under President George W. Bush’s Project Safe Neighborhoods initiative. As a
prosecutor for the state of Florida, I prosecuted hundreds of firearms cases under Florida’s
10-20-Life law, which set forth some of the country’s most severe criminal penalties for the
commission of a gun crime. Because firearms offenses have become more and more preva¬
lent, it is essential that both prosecutors and defense attorneys know as much as possible
about how firearms function to properly try a firearms case.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification not only provides anyone who reads it (whether
he or she has little knowledge or extensive knowledge of firearms) with an easy-to-read,
in-depth analysis of how firearms operate, but also the essentials of an often-overlooked
area of information—ammunition.

Ammunition is important because, more often than not, shell casings are the main evi¬
dence at a firearms crime scene. More importantly, even though the intricacies of cartridge
identification can be tedious, Cartridges and Firearm Identification simplifies this particu¬
lar area enough so that even someone without any knowledge of firearms and ammunition
can easily understand how to identify a cartridge and its origin. For a prosecutor and a
detective, this can become another area of investigation. For a defense attorney, this can
be an area of attack on the prosecution’s case when the detective does not investigate such
things. Cartridges and Firearm Identification will also assist both the analyst as well as the
detective in preparing for their testimony at trial. If one knows all of the avenues of inves¬
tigation, one would know all of the avenues of attack by defense counsel.

As firearms offenses become more and more prevalent, and the penalties for such
offenses become more severe, juries will expect more from the analyst, the detectives
in charge of the case, prosecutors seeking convictions, and defense attorneys seeking to
place a reasonable doubt in the minds of those jurors. Therefore, Cartridges and Firearm
Identification is an absolute must-have for any of the aforementioned criminal justice
participants.

Jean-Paul Galasso, Esq.

Criminal trial lawyer
Fort Myers, Florida

Preface

Of the innumerable texts written about ammunition and firearms, few titles sought to
sell themselves as a reference to meet the unique needs of the legal and law enforcement
professional, criminalistics student, apprenticing firearm examiner, analyst, or regulatory
professional. Traditionally, the publications have focused more toward collectors, histori¬
ans, readers of general firearm interest, and especially those interested in specific firearms,
i.e., Colt Single Action Army revolvers, Axis pistols, and the like. Ammunition texts have
focused on loading and reloading datum for those who make their own ammunition, or
have focused on cartridges from a historical perspective. Firearm- and shooting-centric
periodicals center more on editorializing products, a mix of factual data blended with
the writer’s opinion and comparison/contrast with comparable products. Is an attorney
or criminal investigator seeking clarity in a judicial controversy going to find answers in
a book that covers machine guns used by the armed forces of the world? My own back¬
ground and experience—as a firearms instructor, collector, researcher, shooter, and stu¬
dent—brings me a unique perspective to the topics of ammunition and firearms. Firearms
evidence does not differ from any other form of physical evidence: It can exonerate as well
as implicate; it proves or disproves that the event occurred; and it corroborates or disputes
statements that have been made.

This text brings together a unique, multidisciplined approach to questions that arise
regarding ammunition and firearms within the context of investigation. The sheer volume
of laws and regulations pertaining specifically to firearms calls for the need for knowl¬
edgeable professionals to do the technical heavy lifting. The text does not address to sig¬
nificant depth the microscopic comparisons of the unique, individual striae of cartridge
casings, projectiles, and candidate firearms. Unquestionably, these are critical analyses
that are crucial to investigations involving the discharge of firearms, but the topics at hand
go beyond the lab setting. Beyond the lab and the microscope are the questionable areas
that arise within the context of an investigation involving firearms: obliterated serial num¬
bers, unlawful modifications and alterations, contraband articles, identifying firearms and
ammunition and the particulars about them, and understanding what evidence can be
gleaned from firearms and ammunition within the perspective of that particular crime
scene. Those whose profession it is to evaluate crime scenes have heard that “the crime
scene is trying to tell you something; are you listening?” It can be equally said that “the
firearm is trying to talk to you; are you listening?” This text is intended to be the translator.
A knowledgeable investigator can extrapolate all sorts of valuable investigative intelligence
and evidence strictly from the evidence present at the scene, long before the paperwork is
even drawn up for transmittal to a lab. Such information may provide a substantial inves¬
tigative lead or even a breakthrough.

The readers should not look to this text to guide them in making an informed firearm
purchase. There is no “this is the best gun”; “this is the most effective ammunition ever
made”; or “that particular brand is no good” commentary made. There are certainly plenty
of sources out there that would eagerly opine in response to these statements. Certain

xvii

xviii Preface

brand names, and certain firearms and ammunition are referenced here, but do not look
for specific recommendations.

This text goes beyond skin deep into a firearm. The reader will see that mere appear¬
ances can be relatively meaningless, and can often be misleading. This text introduces the
reader to the standards of defining ammunition dimensions and the subtleties to these
definitions. The reader is immersed with the various types of projectiles in existence, and
the text challenges some of the commonly held dogmas. Perhaps most importantly, exten¬
sive research has gone into providing the reader with a global perspective on ammunition,
as well as a cross section of manufacturers around the world and what their manufacturing
and respective marking practices are.

The new entrants into these topics who aspire to achieve a level of expertise will greatly
benefit from this text as one of the first they acquire on their journey forward. Any profes¬
sionals in the administration of law and justice in society are offered a treasure trove of
knowledge in this text; lawyers, judges, and investigators of all sorts will learn much here.
1 attempt in this book to bring you ever closer to the firearm without actually putting it in
your hands.

Above all, go out and find your prey. Aspiring botanists will learn nothing by sitting in
their study hoping that, by some good fortune, a rare species of plant will be carried in by
the breeze. Students of ammunition and firearms go out and seek to acquire and expand
their knowledge by finding specimens to study. Start off by looking at the overt features
and characteristics: the ergonomics, the physical shape and size, the layout and location
of the controls, the finish, and the materials that are used in the construction. Look at
the study subject closer; pay attention to the markings and the locations of those mark¬
ings. Note the practices used to affix the markings and which are unique to that example
and those that are common with like firearms. Copious note taking should accompany
any studies. When you are ready, field strip or disassemble some firearms. Schematics and
diagrams are especially helpful references, telling you what a particular part is, what it
looks like, and its function. The same applies to ammunition; take the time to just look at
it whenever you get the chance. Pay attention to what the manufacturers are up to, follow
the industry trends and latest developments. Using this text as your guide, a great deal of
information can be learned and understood by simply handling a firearm or ammunition.
The single greatest impediment to getting a more diverse understanding of firearms is that
certain types, machine guns and such in particular, are heavily restricted and regulated, so
the frequency of familiarizing oneself with such examples may be uncommon, and every
opportunity to do so should be taken advantage of.

Finally, in your journey, be mindful of what you hear and from whom. Contemplate
where their knowledge came from; not all cops are gun experts just because they carry one.
There was a time when police officers, stereotypically speaking, all were gun experts by
virtue of their occupation. Today, modern law enforcement officers are required to possess
so many skills to do their job that technical firearms knowledge is not one of them; it suf¬
fices to simply train them in the use of their own duty arms. There are many self-professed
“experts” out there ready to express their opinion, so don’t buy into the hyperbole. Enjoy
the journey. And no, not every Luger ever made was carried by a German officer, especially
those chromed or plated “presentation examples.”

Acknowledgments

Learning is a perpetual, lifelong pursuit. No one can possibly know everything as long as
there is progress. For as long as there is progress, there will be something more to learn.
I have been very fortunate to have known and learned from individuals who all had a
common interest, that being ammunition and firearms, but who came into the conver¬
sation from different perspectives—tactical, historical, and technical—but all focused on
the central theme of acquiring factual, credible, firsthand knowledge. Sadly, some of these
individuals are no longer among us, and whatever knowledge they possessed that was not
passed along is now lost and must be rediscovered. As long as I am engaged in this sub¬
ject, I will consider myself a student, and I gratefully acknowledge these individuals from
whose mentorship I have gained so much: the late Lieutenant Vincent L. Zarifian, the late
John K. Little, Todd Salmon, Special Agent (retired) Randolph D. Eubanks, the U.S. Army
CID, and the late Major Terry Branscome.

Furthermore, I owe a great debt of gratitude to those who gave me opportunities to
learn and expand my horizons, which ultimately brought me to penning this work: David
Lounsbury, PhD; Charley Mesloh, PhD, Florida Gulf Coast University; Ross Wolf, EdD,
University of Central Florida; Senior Special Agent (retired) Daniel O’Kelly, Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives; Senior Special Agent (retired) Ann Myers,
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives; Harvey Kane, Brandon Pannone, L.
Frank Thompson, King Brown, and Dawn Watkins.

Special thanks to Jarod Ford, Paul Shipley, AAI Corporation, and Christian Sahlberg
for assistance with several of the photographs that appear in this text.

xix

About the Author

Robert E. Walker began working in the field of crime scene investigation in 1995. In 1996,
he entered into an apprenticeship under the tutelage of a noted firearm expert and first
qualified to render expert testimony on a firearm case in 1999. Robert continues to work in
crime scene investigation and remains engaged in firearm examination.

Robert earned his certification as a crime scene investigator from the International
Association for Identification in 2010. He has been qualified as an expert in firearms,
among other subjects, in the state of Florida’s Twentieth Judicial Circuit and in the
Federal Middle District of Florida. During his tenure, Robert has taught courses such
as crime scene investigation and forensic photography at various colleges. He is an
active police academy instructor, teaching investigative subject matter and also serving
as a range officer. Robert routinely presents lectures related to firearms and shooting
investigations to trade organizations, law enforcement agencies, and in the university
setting.

Robert is a graduate of Barry University in Miami Shores, Florida, receiving a Bachelor
of Public Administration. Robert earned his general instructor certification and fire¬
arm instructor certification from the Florida Criminal Justice Standards and Training
Commission in 2003. During his career, he has completed a diverse series of courses in
topics related to forensics and crime scene investigations. Robert has completed numerous
armory courses and attended other firearms courses presented by various federal entities.

xxi

The World of Firearms and
Ammunition

Introduction

Ammunition and firearms are broad, diverse, and dynamic topics. New products are regu¬
larly introduced to the marketplace; new companies appear on the landscape; and there
is constant change. In addition, the uncommon, rarely seen older example comes out of
the woodwork, occasionally challenging even the most knowledgeable person in the field
so that, in effect, the students of these subjects must look in both directions to where the
industry is at the moment and what has already transpired to round off their knowledge.
Inevitably, the examiners who claim to have seen it all are taken to task when that which
they did not know suddenly appears after they already thought they knew it all.

Ammunition and firearms are academic subjects unto themselves and can be viewed
from any number of different viewpoints:

• Historians seeking to understand the implications and uses of firearms and how
they affected past events

• Collectors of arms and ammunition seeking to expand their knowledge base about
their particular interests and ascertain the value of the artifacts they hold

• Designers, engineers, and gunsmiths seeking to innovate and develop new prod¬
ucts or improve an existing one

• Legislative and regulatory entities contemplating legislation or regulation with
respect to firearms and ammunition

• Special-interest groups seeking to forward their respective agendas

• Law enforcement and investigative agencies focusing on the criminal aspects of
the use of firearms and ammunition

• Marketers and users evaluating the suitability of firearms and ammunition for
particular uses or markets: tactical, sporting, or otherwise

Balancing Firearm Safety with Evidence Preservation

The paramount consideration when handling firearms in any situation is safety. The devo¬
tion to safety overrides evidentiary and investigative concerns. Of course, the intent is
always to avoid disturbing potential evidence, but a certain amount of handling is inevita¬
ble to ensure that an accident will not occur. In the case of firearms, the procedures needed
to render them safe are, unfortunately, generally in the reverse order of those applied in
preparation for safe use. Familiarity with the potential hazards can establish a comfort
level that will allow the evidence collector to minimize the impact of safety considerations
on the evidentiary value of the firearm.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

In general, the rules for handling firearms are as follows:

1. Always treat a firearm as if it were loaded.

2. Always keep the muzzle of the firearm pointed in a safer direction.*

3. Never press or allow anything to contact the trigger unless you are ready to and
intent on discharging the firearm.

4. Never point a firearm at anything that you do not intend to destroy or damage.

5. Be sure of what your target is and what lies beyond.

6. Understand the mechanical and operational characteristics of the firearm you are
handling.

7. Always ensure that the proper ammunition is used.

8. Ensure that the barrel is clear of obstructions before firing.

9. Never rely on the mechanical safeties of the firearm to prevent it from discharging.

10. Always handle the firearm in a diligent, conscientious manner.

For the law enforcement/investigative professional or firearm examiner, there are
additional rules to consider given the context of evidentiary concerns, agency policies,
and the particular circumstances under which the contact with the firearm has occurred.
When encountering a firearm in an investigative context, the following procedures should
be observed, keeping the basic rules of firearms safety in mind:

1. Document the condition of the firearm in situ* by way of photographs and field
notes.

a. Does the firearm appear loaded or unloaded?

b. Note the position of a manually selectable safety device, if the firearm is so
equipped.

c. Note the position of an external hammer, if the firearm is so equipped.

d. Note the presence of a malfunction.

Stovepipe: There is a spent casing stuck in the ejection port of a self-loading
firearm. A stovepipe can have several root causes. From the perspective of
a firearms instructor, the stovepipe indicates that the shooter is not main¬
taining a proper amount of grip pressure on the firearm to allow it to cycle,
such as if the grip is relaxed while shooting or an insufficient amount of
grip and wrist strength were applied during shooting, a condition often
referred to as “limp wristing.” From the perspective of an investigator, the
stovepipe condition may be observed in cases of suspected self-inflicted
gunshot wounds because the person’s grip relaxed when the individual suc¬
cumbed to the gunshot injury. It is important to note that the presence or
absence of a stovepipe condition in such a scenario is not singularly indica¬
tive that the injury was self-inflicted, but rather it can be used in consider-

Fired projectiles can travel through walls and ricochet unexpectedly. An absolutely safe direction may
not exist, but a safer direction will minimize the risk of injury or damage should an accidental discharge
occur.

+ A Latin term meaning literally, or in place. Contextually, the term is used to describe when something
is unaltered from its original condition. The term has gained acceptable use in other fields, such as crime
scene photography, where the first series of scene photographs can be described as in situ.

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

ation of the totality of circumstances surrounding death or injury when an
apparent suicide is being investigated.

Double feed: A combination of live cartridge and spent casing in the chamber
that jammed the firearm. As in the case of a stovepipe, the double feed
has several root causes, and can be a shooter-induced error, a mechani¬
cal malfunction on the part of the firearm, a lack of preventive firearm
maintenance, a magazine-related failure, or the result of ammunition with
a powder charge below specification.

Misfeed: A live cartridge did not properly load, causing the action to jam.
Misfeeds are generally attributed to a firearm-related failure, such as a
mechanical malfunction or maintenance issue; however, magazine-related
issues cannot be ruled out, particularly a weak magazine spring. Misfeeds
may also be the result of improperly sized ammunition being loaded.
Misfire: A live cartridge failed to detonate in the chamber. A misfire can be
caused by mechanical failure in the firearm, such as the firing pin or
striker failing to contact the primer of the loaded cartridge, or the strike
being weak and thus having insufficient pressure to cause detonation. A
slight impression in the primer of the loaded cartridge will reveal a weak
firing-pin strike. It may also be possible that the firing-pin surface is suf¬
ficiently worn to be incapable of operating as designed. Ammunition is
the other possible cause, such as a bad primer, a primer that is harder than
normal specification, a dud cartridge (no powder charge), or ammunition
that has somehow been rendered completely inert, such as by exposure to
the elements.

e. If the firearm has a detachable ammunition magazine, is a magazine inserted?

f. Note the presence of blood or other biological material that presents a biohaz¬
ard to the handler.

2. When adequate documentation is made, pick up the firearm; keep away from the

trigger and note additional observations as necessary.

a. When handling handguns, it is often easiest to grasp the right and left sides of
the grips.

b. With long guns (rifles and shotguns), handling is often easiest by the edge of
the stock and by the fore grip or hand guard forward of the trigger.

c. If the action can be opened, do so slowly and carefully so as not to eject a
chambered cartridge. If there is a cartridge in the chamber, take additional
photographs with the action opened slightly to depict the presence of the
loaded cartridge. When documentation is done, slowly close the action.

3. Identify and isolate the ammunition source. Determine where on the firearm the

ammunition source is located. When the ammunition source has been identified,

remove or unload the ammunition source.

a. Remove the detachable magazine using the magazine release button or lever.

b. Open the action of a breech-loaded firearm using the release lever, button, or
knob.

c. Open the cylinder of a revolver using cylinder-release mechanism, or remove the
cylinder.

d. Remove the magazine tube assembly from a tubular magazine and remove
cartridges.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

e. Open the action of a belt-fed weapon and remove the belt.

f. Slowly pull the slide back on a slide- or pump-action firearm. A loaded cartridge
will reveal itself from the chamber. This should be done gradually, and the work¬
ing of the action should be short, or not completely open. This process may require
manipulation of an action bar release knob or lever to allow the action to open. If
the firearm does not have separate loading and ejection ports, it may only be pos¬
sible to slowly work the action to eject any loaded ammunition from the magazine.

g. If the firearm is a bolt action, open or remove the floor plate from the internal
magazine; caution should be exercised because the loaded cartridges will spill
out. Otherwise, once the ammunition source has been identified and isolated
from the action, open the bolt.

4. When the ammunition feed source has been isolated and removed, unload the
chamber and leave the action open. Inspect the chamber visually and by feel, using
a flashlight if necessary.

5. It maybe required that the person clearing the firearm then band the weapon with
a wire tie to visually confirm that the firearm is unloaded.

It is recommended, if possible, that two persons participate in rendering a firearm
safe, even if one or both are fluent with firearms. One person handles the firearm while
the second person can aid by having a camera handy to photograph the presence of the
cartridge or casing in the chamber, which can be instrumental in certain types of inves¬
tigations and recoveries. Figure 1.1 depicts an example of such an image; the action was
slowly opened to reveal that a live cartridge was chambered, although no magazine was
inserted in the weapon at the time it was inspected. In Figure 1.2, there is a ring of burnt
powder surrounding the charge hole in the 12 o’clock position; however, the other charge
holes do not indicate this same appearance, suggesting that only a single round had been
discharged. Investigators should refrain from excessive handling or “dry” (unloaded)
operations to the firearm (pressing the trigger, cycling the action, etc.) during the recov¬
ery phase. Consideration must also be given for the presence of latent fingerprints or
potential DNA sampling, should the circumstances of the case call for it. The investi¬
gator is reminded that the recovery and documentation process should be treated as a

Figure 1.1 (See color insert.) A semiautomatic rifle action is opened, revealing the presence of
a live cartridge in the chamber. Such a find can be of great investigative interest. (Image from
author's collection.)

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

Figure 1.2 A close-up photograph of the front side of a revolver cylinder. Note the burnt pow¬
der ring around the charge hole at the twelve o'clock position. (Image from author's collection.)

“one time shot,” and evidence not collected at the time may not be available later if the
need presents itself. It is inevitable that the evidence may be compromised to a certain
extent due to the necessities of collecting and rendering the arm safe, and this must be
factored into the equation as the cost of doing business. Investigators making the collec¬
tion under more controlled circumstances can exercise more diligent handling. The first
responding officers who must take control of a loose weapon in the interest of their own
safety are not generally afforded this luxury.

Crimes Involving Firearms and Ammunition

The value and accuracy of capturing and assessing accurate firearm and cartridge evidence
early in the investigation cannot be understated. This statement must be balanced with
other investigative, safety, and evidentiary concerns, as the condition of a firearm in situ
is subject to change very quickly in the course of a criminal inquiry, so as many details as
possible must be captured. In the criminal context, firearm-related crimes do not necessar¬
ily include the actual discharge of a firearm or that anyone was injured. Broadly, firearm-
related crimes can be broken down into several categories, each with a subtly different
evidentiary concern that supports the element of the crime:

1. Possession of a firearm or ammunition by a prohibited person:

a. Unlicensed possession in venues were licensing or permits are required

b. Possession by convicted felons whose civil rights have not been restored

c. Persons adjudicated mentally incompetent

d. Possession by a person who is an unlawful user of narcotics or who habitually
uses narcotics

e. Possession by illegal aliens

f. Possession by underage persons

g. Possession by a fugitive from justice

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

h. Possession by a person who has renounced U.S. citizenship

i. Possession by a person discharged from the armed forces under conditions
other than honorable

j. Possession by persons otherwise prohibited by statutory objection

k. Possession in sterile areas such as airports, public buildings, and other similar
places

2. Possession of an unlawful or contraband firearm:

a. A firearm deemed unlawful by its present configuration

b. Unregistered automatic weapons either as manufactured, converted, or reman¬
ufactured into such

c. Unregistered firearm suppressors or silencers

d. Unregistered improvised weapons

e. A firearm with an obliterated, defaced, or altered serial number

3. Use of a firearm as an instrument in crime:

a. Homicide

b. Assault and battery

c. Robbery

d. Poaching

e. Reckless or careless handling or display

f. Storing of a firearm in a manner readily accessible by minors

g. Situations involving culpable negligence

4. Ammunition offenses:

a. Possession by prohibited persons

b. Contraband ammunition

c. Possession of ammunition in a controlled or sterile environment

d. Possession of ammunition in a criminal context, such as in connection with
drug trafficking

In each instance, evidentiary concerns are subtly different and must be considered on
a case-by-case basis. The focus of the investigation from the standpoint of the technical
examination is either to satisfy the elements of the crime under investigation and assist in
establishing the requisite burden of proof, or to contradict investigative presumptions. In
an investigation where a prohibited person is in possession of a firearm and/or ammuni¬
tion, the focus of the evidence lies in merely demonstrating that the possessed article is, in
fact, a firearm or ammunition by the applicable legal definition of such. The firearm exam¬
iner or subject-matter expert must be granted access to the evidence and render an opinion
of whether the article meets the applicable definition or not.

If a firearm is suspected of being a contraband firearm, the examiner must be able
to ascertain that the exhibit is in a configuration that does define it as being unlawful or
contraband. If, in the opinion of the examiner, the exhibit in question is one that is con¬
traband, the examiner should be prepared to fully explain the rationale for this opinion as
well as the technical reasons that justify the opinion. These observations should specifically
outline the observed modifications or alterations. Modifications can take several forms to
include modification of the firearm itself, replacing factory specification components with
nonstandard ones, or the modification of existing components. Hence, the examiner is
able to recognize modifications, replacements, or configurations and call them out specifi¬
cally to support the assertions. The examiner also understands what effects were desired

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

by the modifications or alterations by understanding the purpose and function of the
components in question, whether the desired results were realized or not. Configuration
questions ordinarily focus on such items as the overall length or the barrel length of a
long gun; if the article is a machine gun by manufacture, conversion, or remanufacture;
if the article has some other form of alteration that renders it contraband; or if a device is
defined as a firearm suppressor. Above all, examiners must be fair, honest, and ethical in
their rendering of the opinion, even if the opinion does not coincide with the lay inter¬
pretation of the evidence. This may put the examiner at odds with others, but it must be
understood that the opinions of others, regardless of their credentials, are not applicable
in the court of law; the only opinion that matters is that which the examiner renders and
goes on the record to support.

A number of years ago, an attorney in private criminal defense practice sought out the
author in a case. His client had been arrested for various charges, including possession of a
short-barreled rifle. In the venue where the crime was alleged to have occurred, as well as
under U.S. Code, the minimum barrel length for a rifle is 16 inches. The seized firearm was
stored in evidence by the investigating law enforcement agency, which permitted the article
to be viewed by the defense as part of the discovery process. When the author viewed the
exhibit, the firearm was identified as having been manufactured by Universal Firearms, a
firearm manufacturer then based in Hialeah, Florida. The exhibit was the Enforcer model,
caliber .30 Ml carbine, equipped with an 11-inch barrel, short wooden pistol grip, no butt¬
stock, and perforated metal upper hand guard. The Enforcer model was a postwar com¬
mercially manufactured copy of the World War II-era U.S. Ml carbine. What differed
about the Enforcer was that it was manufactured as a handgun, not as a rifle; thus neither
the minimum barrel length requirement of 16 inches nor the overall minimum length of
26 inches applied. When seized, the supposition by officers was that the firearm was a cut-
down Ml carbine—not an unreasonable assertion to make. Given the author’s opinion,
the firearm charge was dropped, as no violation of law had in fact occurred with respect to
the configuration of that particular firearm. In another instance, the author was asked to
examine a shotgun with an obliterated serial number. The shotgun had been seized during
a criminal investigation and was being held as evidence. The author obtained the shotgun
for review and determined that the serial number had not been obliterated from the shot¬
gun. The shotgun in question, a department store brand dating back to the 1950s, never
had a factory serial number affixed, as it predated the serial number requirement enacted
in the Gun Control Act* of 1968. As such, the criminal case was dismissed, as, once again,
no violation of law had taken place.

In cases of murder, assault, battery, robbery, and other violent crimes where a firearm
is brandished or used as an instrument, the evidence lies not only in that the article is a
firearm, but it opens the dimension of the comparative forensics aspect. The comparative
ballistics aspect seeks to establish the presence or lack of a relationship between candidate
firearm/s and cartridge casings and ammunition that may have cycled through or been
fired by the candidate firearm/s. Ballistic comparisons focus on the markings that occur
because of the interaction of the firearm with the ammunition. Cartridge casings may
bear a firing-pin impression, breech face markings, scratches from the magazine-fed lip
if cycled from a magazine, feed-ramp marks, and ejector or extraction marks. The fired

Title 18, Chapter 44, United States Code.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

projectiles may have sufficient transfer of the barrel profile impressed onto them to effect a
comparison. Even without a firearm, casings and projectiles suspected of being fired from
the same firearm can be compared to one another to form a nexus between the events
should a match be established by examination and formation of opinion by a credentialed
examiner. Ballistic comparisons are separate from firearm examinations in that not every
firearm case requires that comparisons of fired projectiles, spent casings, and suspect fire¬
arms be made, rather just that the submitted exhibit be evaluated and defined.

In crimes where gunfire has occurred, it may be of benefit to bring the firearm sub¬
ject-matter expert into the scene investigation early on to assist in assimilating the avail¬
able firearm evidence into the overall investigation. Since the behavior of firearms is often
in question within the scope of certain investigations, the firearm subject-matter expert
may be able to interpret the scene and make certain determinations that might other¬
wise be overlooked. If possible, it is always advisable to conduct such inquiry at the scene
itself, with minimal scene disturbance, as reconstructive efforts ex post facto may result in
incomplete analysis due to gaps in documentation or a loss of context when removed from
the original scene. Shooting-scene reconstruction is a discipline all unto itself, but this
reconstruction can only be enhanced by bringing in a firearm subject-matter expert who
can explain firearm “behaviorisms” within the context of the broader investigation.

As with firearms cases, criminal cases where the ammunition is the evidence can be
prosecuted. Persons prohibited from possessing firearms are likely prohibited from possess¬
ing ammunition as well. In court, a subject-matter expert would be consulted to determine
if the suspected exhibits are ammunition, as well as any particulars about the ammunition.
From the investigative standpoint, the expert should be consulted about identification of
ammunition that may serve as good intelligence during the investigative process. Certain
examples of ammunition or the firearms chambered for that particular cartridge are rare
or unique, and may prove to be valuable investigative intelligence to possess.

Firearm "Expert"? A Complex Question

What defines a firearm expert? The topic of firearms is so broad that the term is somewhat
elusive. Persons with in-depth knowledge of the subject have tended to follow firearms with
some degree of specificity, including interest in specific makes and models and firearms of
a particular era. The person may have a specific interest in sport and competition shoot¬
ing, law enforcement and military hardware, hunting, or purely as a collector. From a pure
forensic standpoint, the examiner is familiar with all varieties and types of firearms. There
will be voids in any examiner’s knowledge by virtue of exposure, and there are certain fire¬
arms that seldom, if ever, are encountered within the criminal context. This is not to mean
that the credentials of the examiner should be impeached on this point. Defined, the expert
becomes recognized as such based on having gained comprehension of the topic from five
sources: knowledge, skill, experience, training, and education. Moreover, the expert’s com¬
prehension of the subject matter is greater than that of the layperson. Experts are able to
theorize about controversies that are presented to them and engage in hypothetical discus¬
sions, avenues not open to the fact witness whose testimony is limited to direct firsthand
knowledge. Article VII, Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence state that a “witness who
is qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education may testify
in the form of an opinion.”

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Individuals seeking recognition as an expert collectively draw upon these five sources
to support their claim, and such individuals should expect such claims to be thoroughly
vetted. In the courtroom, the prospective expert should reasonably expect to undergo the
legal process of voir dire, that is, to present and clarify the witness’s credentials to the court
and jury, as well as permitting opposing council the chance to challenge the credibility of
the witness under cross examination.

• Knowledge: Knowledge is in direct proportion to the proficiency one has with infor¬
mation obtained from the other four sources. In other words, how much informa¬
tion does a person have related to the subject in question? This information can be
obtained by research, independent thought and observations, as well as through prac¬
tice, training, and education relevant to the field. In general, knowledge can be taken
from both formal and informal settings, but it must be credible. Where did the shared
information come from in the first place, and how was this information obtained?

• Skill: Skill is the adeptness that one has for successfully undertaking and complet¬
ing a task. Anyone, regardless of their competency, is capable of making a mistake;
however, the apparent skill level of a person can be used as a general indication
of that person’s competency in the field. Skill is acquired over time through pro¬
longed and repetitious exposure. Some practitioners can learn very quickly, and
the practice of the craft becomes second nature, whereas others require more
exposure. Skills may diminish and become obsolete over time if the practitioner is
not actively engaged in the field.

• Experience: How long has the person been involved with the subject? Experience
can be somewhat misleading, and it must be balanced between several consider¬
ations to establish what an accurate relative experience level is. Questions to pon¬
der are how long a person has been involved in the field versus what that person’s
exposure to the field has been during that tenure. Another factor to consider in
experience is how productive the person has been in the field, such as caseload,
success rate on cases, complexity of cases, as well as outstanding achievements.
Prospective witnesses should be prepared to answer not only how long they have
been in their profession, but also be prepared to discuss their workload. In an ideal
setting, practical experience bolsters learning through education or training, and
they become complementary.

• Training: Training is generally associated with improving or expanding job skills,
such as changes in work processes or completion of work tasks. Training can take
the form of an apprenticeship, topic-specific courses (armory course given by a
particular manufacturer about a particular product or the product line), techni¬
cal seminars, trade conferences, and the like. Training may have been obtained
from the law enforcement community and/or military service. The advantage of
training is that it tends to be concurrent with the state of the art, more relevant to
the consumer, and typically can be applied immediately. Reference materials that
accompany training sessions tend to be technically focused and are designed to
be workbench aids. Although these materials may become obsolete, they never go
completely out of date; you never know when an old source will come in handy.

• Education: Education involves the presentation of programs for the student to
engage in long-term learning goals. The line between training and education
can indeed be thin; however, education can most generally be applied to formal

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

education in the setting of an academic environment, especially the university or
college setting. The gateway into career paths in modern forensics is a degree, and
this is true even with firearm examiners, although it is unlikely to find firearms
taught as a specific course of study in any university or college catalog. Nonetheless,
a degree rounds off the resume or curriculum vitae of persons seeking to become
subject-matter experts, and this is no less true with firearms.

Rule 702 also stipulates that “the expert’s scientific, technical, or other specialized
knowledge will help the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact at
issue.” In furtherance of this, “The testimony is based on sufficient facts or data; the testi¬
mony is the product of reliable principles and methods; and the expert had reliably applied
the principles and methods to the facts of the case.” In addition, Rule 703 states,

An expert may base an opinion on facts or data in the case that the expert has been made
aware of or personally observed. If experts in the particular field would reasonably rely on
those kinds of facts or data in forming an opinion on the subject, they need not be admissible
for the opinion to be admitted. But if the facts or data would otherwise be inadmissible, the
proponent of the opinion may disclose them to the jury only if their probative value in help¬
ing the jury evaluate the opinion substantially outweighs their prejudicial effect.

The expert must therefore prepare to answer the following questions:

• What underlying facts and information were used to form the opinion?

• Was relevant case information reviewed or not reviewed when the expert contem¬
plated the question?

• What was the process of reasoning, and what theories and methods were used to
form the opinion?

Recognition as an expert does not necessarily give the person carte blanche within
the field; the subject matter must be appropriate to the expertise demonstrated by the pro¬
spective expert witness. As an example, a recognized, renowned expert in the field of the
Austrian Rast-Gasser revolvers and Steyr-Hahn pistols may not necessarily meet the defi¬
nition of expert if the judicial controversy at hand concerns defining an article as a firearms
suppressor by virtue of design and construction—unless, of course, this same person is
prepared to offer evidence supporting expertise in that subject as well.

Exculpatory Evidence

Exculpatory evidence is any evidence that tends to prove, or at least suggest, the inno¬
cence of a party against whom an allegation has been levied. When exculpatory evi¬
dence is uncovered, it must be disclosed to the defense, even in the absence of formal
requests for discovery of the state’s evidence. If the examiner is working for the defense,
it is obviously in the client’s best interest to make the prosecution aware of this evidence
in the timeliest manner. The expert cannot simply choose to ignore exculpatory evi¬
dence when confronted with it. A common error on the part of inexperienced examin¬
ers is the failure to research the question put before them. The examiner is reminded
that, as part of due diligence, a reasonable amount of research must be invested before

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

formalizing an opinion that will serve as the basis of the examiner’s expert conclusion.
To frame this in the context of the firearm examiner, as a hypothetical example: Was
the examiner aware that the firearm in question was subject to a manufacturer’s recall
due to a faulty component that could have caused an accidental discharge to take place?
If the examiner was aware of this recall and had evaluated the significance of such a
recall with respect to the behavior exhibited by the firearm at the time of the event, then
the examiner can still form an opinion but must be prepared to address the possibility
that the errant behavior that prompted the recall did or did not come into play within
the circumstances of the case. Nothing could hurt the overall credibility of the expert
or the soundness of the case more than being blindsided by the startling development
that counsel for a defendant produces such evidence that the examiner was completely
unaware of.

Experts should remember that they are objective purveyors of fact, and although most
firearm examiners are employed by law enforcement organizations, this should not serve as
a justification to cause them to present their testimony in such a way that attempts to sway
the jury toward a guilty verdict. Simply put—the facts are the facts. This should in no way
dissuade the expert from rendering a well-founded opinion and the basis for it; however it
should be presented in such a way that is firm without being prejudicial or inflammatory.

The Frye and Daubert Standards

Legally, the recognition and the definition of experts has fallen upon the two legal stan¬
dards: Frye and Daubert. Both standards are used in the United States, but which standard
is applied varies from state to state. The basic premise of the Frye Standard is that the
underlying method or procedure utilized is accepted in the relevant scientific community.
The Frye Test—that is to say, the question that must be answered to qualify under the stan¬
dard—is that the proponent (the proposed expert) must first identify the pertinent scien¬
tific circle, and then the theory, instrument, circle, or test is accepted—not the conclusion.
The Frye Standard does not apply to purely scientific opinion but, rather, asks if the expert
testimony is reliable. An opinion that is based upon training and experience versus the
application of scientific methods, principles, and testing is not subject to the Frye Standard.
Recall that the expert relies not only upon training and experience, but also education,
skill, and knowledge. There is a very fine yet distinctive line separating the two.

As an example, a law enforcement officer encounters a particular firearm that is sus¬
pected of being a machine gun. The officer forms the opinion because of military expe¬
rience and training, having become familiar with this particular type of weapon in the
course of military service, and having received specific training in weapons that would
include the particular type and model of firearm in question. The officer acts on the basis
of training and experience as substantial reason to seize the weapon and further the inves¬
tigation. In this illustration, the officer did not apply scientific methods, principles, or test¬
ing to arrive at a conclusion that the article in question was, in fact, a machine gun. At face
value, the actions taken by the officer would not be scrutinized under the Frye Standard,
as the officer did not make any conclusive determinations concerning the exhibit. When
the exhibit is later in the hands of a firearm examiner, who conducts examinations and
draws conclusions based upon an examination, the conduct and conclusion of the exam¬
iner becomes subject to the Frye Standard as to the methods and techniques used and the
principles that were applied.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

The U.S. federal courts and certain states observe the Daubert Standard. Daubert is
both similar and dissimilar to Frye. There are parallels between them, but distinct differ¬
ences as well. Under Daubert, the presiding judge acts as a form of gatekeeper in determin¬
ing the reliability, the relevance, and hence the admissibility of the expert testimony that
is being offered. The role of gatekeeper permits the judge some flexibility, subject to some
basic criteria. The judge must decide if the offered scientific method, procedure, or tech¬
nique has been subjected to testing or could be tested, and considers whether it has wide¬
spread acceptance within the relevant scientific circle. The judge may also clarify whether
the method, procedure, or technique has been tested; what the margin of error is; what
controls or standards were in place when the work was conducted; and whether the testi¬
mony is scientifically oriented or not. To properly credentialed subject-matter experts act¬
ing within their field of knowledge, Frye and Daubert are practically transparent.

It is not the position of the examiner to attempt to interpret a statute and apply it
against contemporary case law per se; rather, it is the function of the examiner to conduct
reviews and report findings. This is separate and distinct from the contemporary legal
interpretations of any particular law as it relates to a firearm or ammunition, which are
solely the responsibility of the attorneys arguing the controversy before the court. The
results of an objective, scientific examination of the evidence may yield a result that is
not desirous for the prosecution. However, examiners must bear in mind that they are, in
effect, a witness of the court that is called upon to render objective, unbiased testimony in
the legal question or controversy at hand. The expert cannot opine on questions of law, the
guilt or innocence of the accused, or the credibility of other experts. The expert, however,
can challenge the methodology applied by another expert or comment on the deficiencies
in the opposing expert’s methodology, short of personal attacks and making libelous or
slanderous claims and statements. Experts should view themselves as educators to the jury
and seek to facilitate a level of understanding of the subject matter within the parameters
of the testimony they are providing.

The firearm examiner or subject-matter expert often plays a more intrinsic role beyond
just the typical investigation and prosecution of an alleged crime. The expert maybe called
in to opine when an organization is in the process of selecting potential candidate firearms.
The expert may evaluate a firearm for its uniqueness, rarity, technical properties, or his¬
torical significance that may call for the preservation of the firearm for future study. Even if
the organization in possession of the firearm does not have the desire or facilities to retain
it, countless museums, laboratories, and reference collections may be eager to take posses¬
sion of the firearm. When firearms of an unusual nature or having unusual characteristics
are encountered, the examiner conducts a thorough inquiry and publishes the findings for
fellow examiners and other concerned parties in the form of intelligence bulletins or other
mediums of communication. All examiners benefit from the network of information shar¬
ing and cooperation.

Gunsmiths versus Armorers

Gunsmithing is the oldest profession acquainted with the firearm. Before mass production,
guns were handmade creations that were the work of a knowledgeable artisan. Every com¬
ponent was fabricated from raw material and hand fitted together into a workable product,
as much a work of industrial art and artisanship as a tool. With mass production, the
role of manufacturer transitioned from the gunsmith to the machinist, who fabricated

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

components for production, and engineers, who fine-tuned the ideas of the inventors and
turned them into working products.

The role of the gunsmith did not disappear with the industrial revolution, as there were
always firearms needing repair or owners who wanted some type of custom work or modi¬
fication to their firearms. The gunsmith’s trade was to address the functional and aesthetic
issues of a firearm. It may have been a modification, restoration, repair, or replacement of the
stock. It could have been the refinishing of the firearm, but frequently it concerned repair of
a broken firearm. The gunsmith had to diagnose the symptoms of the malfunction and then
begin deducing what the issue was: a broken part, a slight modification required to a certain
component, replacing a spring, and even fabricating a replacement part that might not be
available through ordinary channels. Their knowledge was gained through such avenues
as apprenticeships, trade schools, experience, and learning from new projects that came
through the door. It was a matter of routine for a gunsmith to fabricate a firearm from a pre¬
fabricated receiver (the frame of a firearm) as well as modifying an existing firearm to suit
the desires and needs of the client. As such, gunsmiths became experts in their own right,
having an understanding of any number of firearms they handled during the course of their
careers. Gunsmiths worked from reference guides and schematics in addition to using their
own eyes, hands, and experience to guide them. Modifying an action was not an exact sci¬
ence; gunsmiths relied on their competence and best judgment to achieve the desired result.

The armorer possesses a similar, yet distinctly different skill set from the gunsmith;
a principle distinction being that gunsmiths are involved in the fabrication of arms and
parts, whereas armorers are not. The armorer is not trained in the same skills and, in
fact, while performing similar labor, is going about the task differently. The armorer still
diagnoses the functional issues of a firearm, but the philosophy of the armorer is affecting
repair through replacement of parts, and not necessarily modifying the firearm or tweak¬
ing a firearm action through machine work and hand fitting. This is especially true in law
enforcement and military circles. There is no need to try to rebuild a part; simply replace it
through spares kept on hand.

Firearm design has evolved a great deal in a relatively short time. For the most part,
firearms contain fewer internal components and offer a degree of inherent flexibility that
in previous generations of arms would have required the services of the competent gun¬
smith to successfully modify or repair. This approach has strong merits: It allows custom¬
ization to suit the user while retaining predictable behaviors and a margin of safety in
keeping with the manufacturer specifications. In contrast, the modification of parts creates
the potential for undesirable firearm behavior that can result in adverse actions, such as
increased potential for accidental discharges. Liability issues permeate firearm design, and
manufacturer specifications and parts keep the behavior of the firearm well within a pre¬
dictable and acceptable tolerance, something that simply cannot be guaranteed otherwise.

Most major firearm manufacturers present courses that cover their specific products.
Third-party instructors often fill the gap for weapon systems when there is no factory sup¬
port or when no single manufacturer is available to offer the training. Armorer training
is often restricted to official entities, licensed firearm dealers, and recognized gunsmiths;
thus such training is generally not available to the general public. Armory courses are a
great way for novice examiners to get started, regardless of what direction they wish to take
their career. Lasting one to five days, these courses are very much hands on, requiring that
the student assemble and disassemble firearms, identify components, and diagnose vari¬
ous mechanical failures. The courses often end with a written and practical exam, ensuring

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

that the student demonstrates a level of proficiency and competency with the product.
Once an armory course is successfully completed, the manufacturer will generally permit
the student to order parts and perform work that will be sanctioned by the factory.

Firearm Examiner

The firearm examiner works with firearms on a different level altogether from gunsmiths
and armorers. Examiners may receive armorer training as a matter of course in their
career; this allows them to see the concepts, principles, and theories behind a particular
firearm or weapon system. However, examiners typically do not apply their knowledge to
repair firearms. Examiners apply their accumulated expertise to conduct a review of a sub¬
mitted firearm as a matter of investigation. The examiner is able to make functional deter¬
minations and obtain whatever data is required from the firearm—identifying unknown
firearms, restoring obliterated serial numbers, or obtaining other pieces of information
that the circumstances may call for.

In the modern paradigms, most firearm examiners are far removed from the scene of
the crime, and they typically do not play any role in the investigation other than evaluat¬
ing the firearm submitted to the crime lab. This approach has both pros and cons. This
approach is beneficial in that it allows the examiner a measure of independence from the
investigation, eliminating the suggestion of improprieties or conflicts of interest, or that
the examiner’s opinion will somehow be tainted by having direct contact or knowledge
of the particular circumstances of the case. The downside is that because of a general lack
of context given the examiner, there is the possibility that the results returned from the
examination will be incomplete in the context of the investigation. This distance may also
create a communication barrier between the examiner and the investigator; thus pertinent
information that could be shared in either direction may not ever be exchanged.

Firearm Subject-Matter Expert

Within the community of firearm subject-matter experts are those that choose to special¬
ize in one or more specific fields: ammunition, firearms, and comparative ballistics. To
draw an analogy, neurologists and cardiologists are both physicians; however, their fields
of practice and expertise are different, although both practice their respective specialty
under the broad field of medicine. Firearm examiners, in particular, may be engaged in
comparison work as well as other firearm-related matters, but there are those who work
with firearms to an extent that does not include comparative examinations. Such examin¬
ers are engaged in the practice of identification, classification, and answering other ques¬
tions related to firearms, short of doing comparative ballistic work. Such examiners require
a degree of competence commensurate with the work they conduct. A simple function test
can be completed by anyone familiar enough with a firearm to safely use it. However, a
simple function test may not rise to the level of expertise as defined by the Frye or Daubert
Standards, as it can involve testimony that is based on firsthand knowledge as opposed to
being based on expert opinion.

Not every case presented is simple. Consider the question of a submitted exhibit that
appears to be a firearm but does not function. Does inoperability disqualify the exhibit as
a firearm under applicable legal language? For example, Florida State Statute 790.001(6)
states:

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“Firearm” means any weapon (including a starter gun) which will, is designed to, or may
be readily converted to expel a projectile by the action of an explosive; the frame or receiver
of any such weapon; any firearm muffler or firearm silencer; any destructive device; or any
machine gun. The term “firearm” does not include an antique firearm unless the antique
firearm is used in the commission of a crime.

The term operable should not be confused with the term functional. In an instance
where the exhibit is inoperable, can the examiner explain why this could be the case? What
defect is present that prevents the exhibit from operating as designed? If the examiner
were to remedy the problem so that the exhibit could then function as a legally defined
firearm, how could this discrepancy be explained? An operable firearm cannot be deemed
nonfunctional purely on the occurrence that it did not fire when tested. In such a scenario,
this is where the expert opinion comes into play. The examiner must be able to diagnose
the probable cause(s) of the inoperability, and then perhaps seek to experiment with the
different possibilities to ascertain the actual cause(s). The opinion therein lies in the articu¬
lation of a device that “is designed to, or may be readily be converted to expel a projectile.”
Based on the legal definition, it is also possible that the mere presence of a firearm frame
or receiver would be sufficient to meet the definition of a firearm. The examiner must be
able to identify the exhibit as a frame or receiver. Once again, as a matter of opinion, is the
frame or receiver present, and could it be readily restored to function/operation?

For example, most pistol receivers can be made into fully functioning firearms in a
matter of minutes if the balance of parts are at hand. Thus a frame or receiver that is dis¬
assembled could be articulated to be a firearm by definition, despite the fact that, in its
current state, it is inoperable yet functional. Consider further, within the definition of a
firearm, all of the following terms apply: antique, machine gun, muffler or silencer, and
destructive device. Examiners must be able to articulate each one in relation to an exhibit
before them if it is to be classified as a firearm. If an exhibit is a homemade or improvised
device, does it meet any portion of the definition? In the opinion of the assessor, is the
device or apparatus designed to act as a firearm? That is, is it designed, or can it be con¬
verted, to expel a projectile by the action of an explosive?

Basics: Understanding What Makes a Firearm Operate

For all the technological advancements that have occurred in firearm design, the major¬
ity of these advancements have affected everything else about a firearm except the basic
tenets of function, which is how a firearm operates. The firearm has a sole purpose, but the
means by which this purpose is achieved are, from a mechanical perspective, quite varied.
The majority of operating systems and principles are old, well-established ideas that have
changed very little.

It is ironic that one of the most popular handgun designs in the world, the Colt-Browning
Model 1911, remains virtually unchanged since first conceived. Functionally, the 1911 design
is still a 1911, regardless of which manufacturer produced the article and what aesthetic
qualities may have separated one version from another. There have been subtle improve¬
ments to the basic design during its century-long existence, but the basic premise remains
unchanged. The Mauser 98 design went into service in 1898 and was directly descended
from the Mauser Gewehr Model 1871. Today it remains a top choice for bolt-action rifle

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

builders to copy, as there apparently is not much room for improvement to the basic mecha¬
nisms of the action. Before the introduction of the Soviet AK pattern firearms, the Mauser
98 was the most prolific battle rifle the world had ever seen, in terms of both quantity manu¬
factured and adaptation by nations on every continent. Nations from Argentina to Israel
and from Iraq to the Orange Free State used a Mauser at some time during the first half
of the twentieth century and even later. Ordinarily, these rifles can readily be identified by
the appearance of national crests, a manufacturer’s mark, and a date on the receiver ring.
Numerous firms manufactured the 98, including firms not located in Germany, such as
Fabrique Nationale in Herstal, Belgium, and the Radom arsenal in Poland. Between 1934
and 1945 alone, a combination of German and foreign firms turned out over 12 million
rifles, roughly 1 million per year. A Model 98 rifle can still turn up anywhere.

A firearm is basically a machine. A machine fulfills a specific purpose and accom¬
plishes the work by a process. The purpose of a firearm is to expel a projectile under the
force of an explosive. To accomplish this work or operation, the ammunition cartridge is
first introduced into the chamber or breech of the firearm. This introduction, called load¬
ing or charging, can come by hand insertion to the breech or chamber, by loading from a
clip into an internal magazine, by inserting a detachable magazine, by charge holes in a
cylinder, or by being fed from an ammunition belt. Once ammunition is loaded into the
chamber and the action is closed, the firearm is ready to fire. A breech-loaded firearm
would be closed by hand, whereas a firearm that that is self-loading would be closed by
working the action manually or by the manipulation of a release in preparation for firing.

Once loaded, the firearm is fired by the press of a trigger. The trigger press is subject to
resistance that can be measured in pounds or other metrics of force that must be overcome by
the pressure exerted by the shooter. There is not a universal standard that dictates how much
resistance a trigger should have, but it is noted as a matter of safety that the trigger press
should not be excessively light. An exception to this would be weapons dedicated to sporting
competition, where the trigger press is greatly reduced to increase the speed of the shooter.

Firearms can be capable of two different firing conditions—double and single action—
each having a separate trigger-resistance weight. Many firearms are capable of either firing
condition, whereas other firearms are capable of acting under one to the exclusion of the other.

Trigger Travel

The trigger travel should not be confused with the mechanical force required to overcome the
trigger resistance. The trigger travel is the physical distance the trigger must move to the rear
to cause the firearm to discharge. When the trigger travels a given distance, the firing train
or mechanical linkage that connects the trigger to the hammer or firing mechanism disen¬
gages, releasing the trigger from the firing mechanism and causing the firearm to discharge.
This point is often called the trigger break. Once a complete pull of the trigger is made, the
trigger must be allowed to return forward. The trigger reset is the distance that the trigger
must travel forward to reengage the firing mechanism and enable the firearm to be capable of
firing again, assuming there is ammunition chambered and ready to fire. Experienced shoot¬
ers train their trigger finger to know the exact point of trigger return where the reset takes
place, allowing for minimal trigger press, thus firing more quickly and likely more accurately
as well. Trigger overtravel is the physical distance that the trigger can continue to travel rear¬
ward after the discharge has occurred. Certain firearms have adjustable triggers that permit
the amount of trigger overtravel to be tailored to shooter preference.

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Figure 1.3 A modern replica of the single-action-only 1847 Colt Walker manufactured by
Uberti. (Image courtesy of A. Uberti/Benelli USA.)

Single-Action Firearms

Single-action firearms require that the hammer be cocked, either manually or by the action
of the firearm, such as working the action by using the charging handle, pulling back on
the slide, or by pulling the hammer back if the firearm has an exposed hammer. Single¬
action automatic firearms automatically reset the hammer during the cycling action. The
slide or bolt travels to the rear and cocks the hammer automatically.

There are semiautomatic firearms that have exposed hammers, found at the rear of
the slide above the grip. However, there are also semiautomatic firearms that have internal
hammers whose actions and firing condition are not visible to the shooter until the firearm
is disassembled. Firearms with internal hammers are often called hammerless designs, but
this may not be technically correct. The hammer may not be exposed to view from the exte¬
rior, but there is a part that transfers force by impact onto the firing pin. This is frequently
the case with long guns, where there is a hammer, in the purest technical sense of the word;
however, it is not visible, as it is contained within the receiver. There are true hammerless
designs that completely omit the hammer, instead relying on the trigger to directly interact
with the other fire-train components to cause the loaded cartridge to discharge.

Single-action-only revolvers represented the first major step toward modern firearms
and were among the first to employ modern self-contained cartridges. Figure 1.3 shows
a modern replica of the Colt Walker model, an atypical example of a single-action-only
revolver. The single-action-only mechanism exists in all varieties of firearms. Specification
data for such firearms will abbreviate the action as SA (single action) or SAO (single action
only). The typical range for a single-action trigger press is generally set between 3 and 6
pounds; however, it can be significantly less if modifications or adjustments have been made
to the trigger mechanism. Certain firearms are capable of user-adjustable trigger-resistance
weights or are equipped with a set trigger. A set trigger is a second trigger, located within
the trigger guard, which is pressed not to discharge the firearm, but to preset the amount
of trigger resistance on the firing trigger. The Swiss Vetterli 1871 carbine* is an example of
a firearm equipped with a set trigger. The set trigger is located behind the firing trigger. A
set trigger must not be confused with double triggers used to fire individual chambers on
multiple-barreled arms such as double-barrel shotguns and drilling-type firearms.

A carbine is defined as a short rifle. Carbines initially were developed by reducing the barrel length of
a full-sized main battle rifle, primarily intended for use by cavalry or other specialized types of infan¬
try. Carbines were simply shorter versions of existing firearm platforms. Later, unique pattern firearms
expressly designed as carbines were introduced, and were not necessarily reconfigured from an existing
platform.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Double-Action Firearms

A double-action firearm requires that the press of the trigger must first cock the firing
mechanism and then cause it to release. The shooter presses the trigger, which, through
mechanical linkage, first cocks the hammer and then releases it once there is sufficient
trigger travel. Suffice it to say, a double-action trigger press is generally much greater than
a single-action press, both in the physical distance the trigger must travel and the amount
of effort that must be exerted by the shooter to cause the discharge to occur.

Many double-action firearms are also capable of single-action operation by simply
cocking the hammer or working the action in preparation to fire. A firearm capable of both
double and single action will behave exactly like a single-action firearm in this condition.
Many firearms are double action only, often abbreviated as DAO; likewise, single-action-
only firearms are abbreviated as SAO; and firearms capable of either firing mode are abbre¬
viated SA/DA. The typical range for a double-action trigger press ranges between 5 and 15
pounds, although there is no set standard that must be observed. Like single-action-only
firearms, double-action trigger resistance may be altered by modifications made to the
trigger and the other components in the firing train.

The revolver in Figure 1.4 is capable of both single- and double-action operation. The
first visual cue is the spurred hammer, which allows for thumb cocking to a single-action
condition. Modern revolvers of this design are not single action only. Figures 1.5 and 1.6
demonstrate the movement of the revolver’s mainspring and how it relates to the behavior
of the hammer. There are variations in mainspring design and exact placement within the
grip, which varies by designer and manufacturer; however, they all serve the same purpose.

There are two distinct types of double-action trigger. The first type has to be cocked,
such as the Glock or Springfield XD. Some view this type of trigger as having a distinct
disadvantage. In the event of an ammunition failure, the shooter must perform a clearance
drill to strip the dud cartridge from the chamber, reset the action, and prepare again to fire.
However, not all surveyors of this fact deem it to be a disadvantage from a tactical perspec¬
tive. The other type of double-action trigger is one that offers a second strike or restrike
capability. In such a system, the function of the trigger cocks and releases the action, such
as in the case of a double-action revolver or a semiautomatic pistol such as the Smith &
Wesson Sigma, the Beretta 92, the Beretta 96, or the H&K USP series. In the event of a
cartridge failure, the shooter simply presses the trigger again.

Figure 1.4 Most modern revolvers are capable of single- and double-action firing, as is the case
with this Taurus Model 856, chambered in .38 Special. (Image courtesy of Taurus International
Manufacturing.)

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Figure 1.5 A Smith & Wesson Model 19 in double action firing condition, the hammer is
“at rest”, note also the position of the mainspring, the flat metal piece revealed by removal
of the grip. (Image from author’s collection.)

Figure 1.6 A Smith & Wesson Model 19 in single action firing condition, note the move¬
ment of the mainspring as compared with its position in Figure 1.5. The side plate has also
been removed, revealing the hammer block safety and the linkage between the hammer
and trigger. (Image from author’s collection.)

Sequence of Operation

Regardless of whether the firearm is double or single action, when the hammer releases
its fall, or when travel causes it to impact directly (or through intermediate parts) onto
the firing pin, the force of the impact is passed on to the primer or rim of the loaded car¬
tridge. This is the percussion detonation that is used in modern, self-contained cartridges,
as opposed to archaic ignition systems such as the wheel lock, matchlock, or flintlock.

In some firearms, the firing pin is integral to the hammer or is attached to the bolt
face; in other designs, the firing pin or striker is a separate piece from the hammer or bolt.
Various safety designs exist that may act as intermediaries that prevent direct hammer/
firing-pin connection, instead passing the impact pressure through this intermediary, such
as the case with a transfer-bar-type safety on a revolver.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Upon impact, the primer or priming compound detonates, which causes an intense
super-hot fire to pass into the main cartridge chamber through small holes called flash
holes, which detonate the contained powder mixture. Once ignited, the contained powder
charge starts to deflagrate, creating gas as a by-product. Once sufficient gas pressure has
been achieved within the casing, the gas forces its way through the path of least resistance:
the seated projectile. The casing is sitting snuggly within the walls of the firearm receiver
and is thus well reinforced. When this is not the case—if the chamber is eroded or if sub¬
sized ammunition has been chambered into the firearm—a ruptured casing may occur as
a result of this gas pressure. This may jam or even damage the firearm. Firearms have been
known to come apart when an overpressure cartridge detonates within the chamber, dam¬
aging the host weapon and possibly resulting in death or injury of the shooter or others in
proximity. Once the loaded cartridge is fired, the cycle of operation must be successfully
repeated to allow fresh ammunition to be loaded, either by hand, by manual manipulation
of a control (as in the case of a bolt-action or lever-action firearm), or automatically by inde¬
pendent operation of the firearm without input by the operator short of pressing the trigger.

Methods of Operation

Automatic* or self-loading firearms function by capturing the gas pressure created by the
discharge of the ammunition cartridge that pushes the projectile out of the barrel. This
energy can be captured, redirected, and utilized to cause the firearm to continue to operate
by automatically ejecting and extracting the spent casing, then loading a fresh cartridge
into the chamber while resetting the action to permit an immediate follow-up shot, assum¬
ing there is ammunition available. This principle is called gas operation. There are numer¬
ous methods and subvariations of gas operation, and although all gas-operated weapons
do work by the same principle—by way of this gas pressure—mechanically they work
differently. The first cartridge must be loaded by interaction of the operator, typically by
inserting a magazine or loading cartridges into an internal magazine, and the action must
be manually cocked. The automatic sequence only occurs when discharge has taken place.

Gas Impingement

A firearm that operates on gas impingement, which is also called direct gas operation,
uses gas pressure returned to the receiver from the muzzle that automatically cycles the
firearm’s action. The gas pressure returns to the receiver through a gas tube or channel,
where such gas pressure strikes, collides, or impinges directly on the firearm action. The
Swedish Ljungmann AG42, introduced in 1942, was such a self-loading rifle that used a gas
impingement system, and it became the inspiration for a series of early gas-operated rifles
used around the world. The best-known application of gas impingement is the AR-15, a
derivative of a prior rifle, the AR-10, and developed in the 1950s. The AR-15’s gas-impinge¬
ment system has been subjected to criticism since the rifle was adopted in 1962 by the U.S.
Air Force and in 1964 by the U.S. Army. A fact that is often overlooked historically is that

The term automatic should not be inferred in this text to exclusively define a firearm capable of sus¬
tained automatic fire with a single press of the trigger, called a machine gun. An automatic firearm is
also meant to include a semiautomatic firearm, which still operates automatically when cycling, yet
fires once per press of the trigger.

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Eugene Stoner, the designer of the AR-15, did in fact develop the AR-10 as a gas piston-
driven system. However, as history would have it, the gas-impingement system won out.

Gas-Piston Operation

Gas-piston operation represents an alternative to the direct gas action and maybe referred
to as an indirect gas-action system because the gas pressure does not directly work with the
firearm action; instead, the piston acts as the intermediary between the two. A gas-piston-
operated firearm uses the gas pressure generated by the expanding volume of gas in the
fired cartridge to move a piston. The stroke of the piston may be long, or short, relatively
speaking. As is the case with all types of firearm actions, there is no singular method by
which the gas piston system is employed; there are numerous variations of how the gas-
piston action is set up.

John Garand’s Ml rifle was a piston-driven semiautomatic, although it is often just called
a gas-operated rifle. The Garand’s piston pushes an operating rod that interacts with the
bolt, allowing the automatic cycle of extracting, ejecting, loading, cocking, and chambering
to occur. A counteracting spring returns the operating rod and piston to close the action in
preparation for repeat firing. The components in the Garand’s gas piston system are located
underneath the barrel. In contrast, during World War II, German forces fielded a gas-operated
semiautomatic rifle, the G.43 (gewehr meaning rifle), which also used a gas-piston system,
albeit more complicated than the Garand. The G.43 used a fixed gas piston that was acted
upon by a moving gas cylinder. Gas entered the system from ports in the barrel and propelled
the cylinder, not the piston. The cylinder linked to a connecting rod that linked to an actuat¬
ing rod that worked the action. At the end of the train was a spring that countered the actua¬
tor rod, closing the gas system in preparation for repeated fire. When viewed, it looks like an
excessively complicated system; it contained more pieces than the Garand, and in contrast to
the Garand, these parts were located on top of the barrel. The G.43 was not an innovation;
there was likely influence from the Soviet SVT 38, also a gas-piston-operated rifle.

The SVT 38 and its simplified successor, the SVT 40, used a short-stroke gas piston
that, like the previous examples, received gas pressure from gas ports cut in the barrel. The
piston pushes an operating rod, which pushes the bolt. The operating rod is spring loaded
to cycle the action. A forward-looking and novel feature of the SVT gas system was an
adjustable gas-regulating valve. The presence of an adjustable gas valve is almost a univer¬
sal feature on gas-piston-operated firearms since 1945.

The Austrian Steyr AUG (Armee Universal Gewehr) and copies of it are examples of
contemporary rifles operated by the gas piston method. Introduced in 1977, the AUG is still
a rather futuristic looking weapon that made extensive use of polymer construction and was
a compact, “bull pup”* design. An interesting feature of the AUG is that its gas piston serves
double duty, as it also acts as one of the two bolt guide rods in the receiver, a design touch
that reduces the number of parts and contributes to the compactness of the design.

Mikhail Kalashnikov, the designer of the AK47, AKM, and AK74 series of rifles, took
the gas piston concept in a slightly different direction. He further simplified the method by
combining the piston and the bolt carrier.

A bull pup is a long-gun design concept that moves the receiver to the rear of the firearm, often incor¬
porating it into the shoulder stock, allowing for a shorter overall dimension while maintaining a full-
length barrel.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 1.7 Two styles of bolt carrier, bolt, and recoil spring for an AK-pattern weapon. The
piston threads into the bolt carrier to form one piece. (Image from author's collection.)

The piston threads into the bolt carrier and essentially makes the two one piece, elimi¬
nating the need for additional operating or actuating rods and other linkage that is found
in other designs. This approach to the gas-piston system is widely acclaimed for its reli¬
ability and general lack of required maintenance to ensure reliable operation. Figure 1.7
shows two different designs of the Kalashnikov combination piston, operating rod, and
bolt carrier. The bolts are shown, as are the recoil springs and recoil spring guides. The
recoil spring attaches to the rifle by two lugs at the back of the receiver, and the front part
of the recoil spring sits within the piston/operating rod. The bolt carrier rotates within a
channel on the bottom of the unit.

Gas-piston systems have been widely touted as the replacement for gas impingement
in the AR-15/M16-pattern weapons. Recent entrants to the market, such as the Heckler &
Koch 416 and 417 rifles,* the FN SCAR 16 and 17, Sig 556, and the Remington/Bushmaster
ACR (Adaptive Combat Rifle), are all gas-piston-driven designs. Two potential disadvan¬
tages of piston-driven systems versus gas impingement are the added weight of the addi¬
tional pieces required in a piston system as opposed to a gas tube and a lower cyclic rate of
fire if the firearm in question is a machine gun. Both of these potential disadvantages can
be abated by engineering adjustments that make the components lighter to reduce weapon
weight and increase the rate of fire.

Gas-operated semiautomatic pistols are not typical, but they do exist. There is noth¬
ing technically or inherently wrong with a pistol that functions using gas, if one can get
past the complication and additional engineering of such a pistol, relative to the simplic¬
ity of the recoil-operated or blowback designs. Akin to gas-operated rifles, a gas-operated
handgun must have a means or method to capture and channel the gas generated by the
discharged cartridge, which ordinarily entails a gas trap and the associated plumbing to
return the gas to the action. The Israeli Weapons Industries manufactures the Desert Eagle
line of handguns, one of the few examples of gas-operated pistols. The Desert Eagle, mar¬
keted by the American subsidiary Magnum Research, features a fixed-barrel design in a
configuration somewhat reminiscent of a blowback pistol, but looks can be deceiving; the
pistol uses gas bled from the bore that drives a piston that acts upon the slide, pushing it
open. The design features a rotating bolt, like the AR-15/M16. The smallest pistol of the

The H&K 416 and 417 are Heckler & Koch's interpretation of the M16 rifle, but feature the gas-piston
system of operation as well as some ergonomic and other improvements over the basic M16 rifle in its
current configuration.

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

line, the Micro, also uses gas-assisted blowback. The Desert Eagle is best known for its big
bore caliber, .50 Action Express, rivaling the .500 Smith & Wesson Magnum, .460 Smith
& Wesson Magnum, and others for the largest handgun cartridges available. The Desert
Eagle is physically not a small pistol, and it features the ability to change calibers quite
easily. Pistolized versions of rifles, such as the AR or AK pattern, retain fidelity to their
original operating principle of gas operation.

Recoil Operation

Semiautomatic handguns, also called pistols, are almost universally recoil operated save
for those few gas-operated examples. Recoil operation allows pistols to be simplified in
parts content and keeps them reasonably compact. Recoil or blowback pistols rely on a
recoil spring (or springs) that serves to compress against the rearward motion of the slide
as the projectile travels down the barrel, generating the “opposite and equal reaction”
caused by the detonation of the cartridge. The rearward travel of the slide ejects the spent
casing and resets the hammer. The recoil spring then rebounds, forcing the slide forward,
loading a fresh cartridge, locks the action, and prepares the firearm for a subsequent shot.
This impulse occurs within fractions of a second.

The recoil spring can be installed on a recoil spring guide, essentially a metal or plastic
shaft, and is installed beneath the barrel. Most designs in modern times have centered on
recoil-operated pistols that employ locking lugs or cams at the bottom of the barrel that
interact with a locking block in the frame during the recoil sequence of firing. Some designs
have a locking block that is integral to the frame; others use a locking block that is a sepa¬
rate component and is installed in the frame. There are also dual recoil spring designs, as
is the case with the Walther R38 and its descendents such as the P-1. The Walther P.38 fea¬
tured dual recoil springs on steel guide rods on either side of the frame above the grips and
beneath the barrel. Another interesting feature of the Walther P.38 is its locking block, which
is a separate piece from the barrel that pushes down at an angle into a recess in the frame.

Single-recoil springs on a recoil spring guide that are fixed underneath the barrel
are most prevalent on modern pistols. Other pistols, such as the Colt Woodsman, Colt
Huntsman, Browning Buck Mark, and the Smith & Wesson 22 series, have a barrel fixed
to the frame, but the slide does not fully enclose it, nor does it rest upon the entire length
of the frame. In these instances, the slide is behind the barrel and reciprocates, extending
forward only to the breech.

Blowback Operation

The blowback method of operation is the simplest means to make an automatically repeat¬
ing firearm function. A blowback-operated firearm functions by the pressure generated in
the breech when a loaded cartridge is expelled, causing the entire bolt assembly or slide
to reciprocate when cycling. When cartridge detonation occurs, it pushes the reciprocat¬
ing part rearward, which then returns to battery by the counteracting pressure of a recoil
spring. Blowback firearms have fixed barrels that are integral to the receiver or locked in
place by other means. Blowback firearms generally are extremely reliable because, with so
few pieces, there is little that can go wrong. They can be lightweight and compact because
they do not require the added parts and plumbing of other gas systems; everything is con¬
tained within the receiver.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Due to the simplicity of the blowback principle, it has been a regular choice for semi¬
automatic handgun designs. The Israeli UZI submachine gun, one the most easily recog¬
nized examples of a blowback firearm, is well known for its simplicity, ease of manufacture,
low maintenance, and utter reliability. Gordon Ingram certainly looked to the UZI both
in form and in function when designing the MAC pattern firearms. The AR-15 platform
firearms chambered in 9x19mm and in .22 operate on the blowback principle, since these
cartridges develop insufficient gas pressure to work effectively using gas impingement; this
includes the Colt Model 635 9x19mm submachine gun. The 635 is often called the CAR-9,
a name apparently meant to indicate that the firearm was a carbine chambered in 9mm.
Pistols such as the Mauser HSc, Walther PP and PPK, and the SIG Sauer P230 series are
classic blowback pistols, having fixed barrels and a recoil spring that shrouds the barrel.

As with all operating systems, there are variations to the basic blowback principle. The
delayed blowback pistol is a subtle variation of straight blowback. In a delayed blowback
system, there is an intermediate step that prevents the immediate retraction of the slide or
bolt under the force of the recoil. The Fabrique Nationale (FN) Five-seveN pistol is such a
design, owing to the chamber pressure developed by the 5.7x28mm cartridge. Figure 1.8
shows the Five-seveN pistol field stripped.

The simplicity of the blowback system meant that it was ideal to develop a more
complex system that was, in effect, blowback but with some twist or addition. The
toggle action of the Luger pistol is one such example. The slide recoiled very little;
however, the toggle action absorbed the recoil energy and returned the gun to battery.
The roller-lock bolt system is another example of delayed blowback, and is one of the
few successful examples where blowback worked with full-power military cartridge
applications. The roller-lock bolt system was developed in Germany in the late stages
of World War II and found its way back to Germany by way of Spain, where the system
was more fully developed. The firm Heckler & Koch is best known for employing the

Figure 1.8 The FN Five-seveN is a delayed blowback pistol. Although there is no externally
visible hammer, this is not a hammerless design. The hammer is seen at the rear of the frame,
next to the ejector, which has a hooked appearance. (Image from author's collection.)

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

system in its entire long-gun line, from precision rifles to general purpose machine
guns. In an ironic twist, the readily recognized Thompson 1928 submachine gun was
originally designed to use a form of delayed blowback and ended up as a straightfor¬
ward blowback when the design was simplified for mass production as the M1/M1A.
The simplification did not seem to hamper the Thompson’s reputation as a reliable
and effective submachine gun, and it probably went unnoticed except by the technical
aficionados.

The Israeli Galil, which borrowed heavily from the Kalashnikov system, operates on a
gas-piston system that also provides for a delay where gas pressure is reduced. Rather than
accomplish this delay by mechanical means, it is done by having loose tolerances in the bolt
carrier parts, including a notched gas piston, which allows some gas pressure to bleed off but
reserves a sufficient quantity to cycle the weapon. The Beretta Model 92 operates by delayed
blowback. This is accomplished by a locking block that locks the barrel and slide until cham¬
ber pressure has abated. The barrel maintains a flat plane during the course of cycling.

Other methods of delaying blowback include using a lever to moderate the movement
of the bolt; using gas pressure to retard the rearward movement of the bolt, in essence
a reverse of gas operation; or the recessed-ring delayed blowback. The recessed ring is
unique to the Seecamp LW32 and LWS380 pistols, which are identified as retarded blow¬
back by the manufacturer, although the company website references a recessed ring in the
chamber “into which the case expands on firing, making the weapon a retarded blow¬
back” (L.W. Seecamp Co. n.d.). Unsuccessful attempts at blowback include the screw-
delayed and the Pederson hesitation lock, both of which are unlikely to be encountered
or appear again.

Recoil-Operated versus Blowback Firearms

What differentiates a recoil-operated firearm from a blowback firearm is that the recoil-
operated firearm has a measure of barrel travel. There are two approaches to recoil opera¬
tion: short and long recoil. As the names imply, either recoil operation is based purely
upon the physical distance that recoil takes place. The classic example of short recoil, the
Colt 1911, uses a swinging link. The barrel has a hinge that is connected to the frame by
the takedown pin, and there is a locking cam on top of the barrel to fix it to the slide when
the action is closed (see Figure 1.9). Interestingly, Browning abandoned the swinging link
approach when he designed the heir apparent to the Model 1911, the Hi Power, which
uses the now familiar locking lug located underneath the barrel, and which locked dur¬
ing recoil into a steel bar in the pistol frame. The continuation of this popular design has
a barrel equipped with locking lugs that connect to a locking block as the firearm is fired
and the barrel is pushed slightly rearwards because of the recoil. Nearly every handgun
manufacturer uses or has used this method at one time or another, and this system is still
defined as a short recoil or modified Browning action, as the barrel and slide travel rear¬
ward together for only a short distance before the barrel is locked into place by the locking
lugs. Figure 1.10 shows the modified Browning action as applied in the H&K USP Tactical
45 pistol. The barrel has locking lugs on the bottom side, and the recoil spring guide locks
to the barrel and to the guide on the frame. Another design variation to recoil operation
does not require that the barrel necessarily be captured by locking lugs or by any other
linkage, but instead the barrel travels along a rail or guides that are part of the receiver, and
the barrel does not tilt as it travels.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

0 sssmwmmmms®

Figure 1.9 The classic Browning short-recoil action. Note the swinging link under the bar¬
rel. Although this is a Colt 1991 Al, not much has changed from the original 1911. (Image from
author's collection.)

Figure 1.10 The Heckler & Koch USP Tactical pistol chambered in .45 ACP. The USP is
recoil operated, using a modified Browning action. Note the differences between this recoil
action, swinging link, and blowback designs compared with Figure 1.9. (Image from author's
collection.)

Long-recoil-operated arms are primarily long guns, as handguns generally are physi¬
cally too small to accommodate a long recoil action. A long-recoil-operated firearm oper¬
ates in much the same way as a short-recoil firearm, save for the fact that in a long-recoil
arm, the action and barrel remain locked together in the recoil sequence and are counter¬
acted by recoil springs, whereupon the barrel returns in advance of the bolt, which recoils
after the barrel has returned forward. This delay allows the bolt to complete the sequence

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

of ejecting and loading a fresh ammunition cartridge and chambering same when return¬
ing forward. An unusual form of recoil operation is the blow-forward action. As the name
implies, it works by recoil but in reverse of a blowback design. A blow-forward action
pushes the barrel forward by the force of the recoil.

Striker-Fired Firearms, a Contemporary Trend

The recent trend in pistols is a polymer frame using a striker-fire design. The striker is not a
new idea, having appeared quite early in the twentieth century at the dawn of the automatic
pistol era. The Colt Model 1908 Vest Pocket is an example of an early striker-fired firearm
and was quite novel for the time. The striker design eliminates a hammer as part of the fire-
control train. The striker instead can rely upon a direct action of the trigger sear releasing
a spring-loaded firing pin. In a single action, striker-fired design, the firing-pin spring is
placed under tension, and therefore the pistol would have to be charged by pulling back
the slide, which would in turn cock the firing-pin spring. In the case of the Colt 1908 Vest
Pocket, two safety devices were built into the design. The first was a grip safety, consisting
of a pressure plate located on the back of the grip. The pressure plate disengaged the trig¬
ger from the firing train and thus disabled the firearm until it was depressed, presumably
by gripping the pistol. Later Colt further enhanced the safety of the model by providing a
manual safety operated by a lever on the left side of the frame, but it was really redundant
given the other positive safety features. The 1908 Vest Pocket was in stark contrast to the
Colt Model 1905. Although they shared the grip safety, the 1905 used an internal hammer.

The firearms designed by Bruce Jennings that emerged in the early 1970s were blow-
back striker-fired pistols. The design used a fixed barrel on the cast-metal alloy frame.
In 1971, Raven Arms entered the market, followed by Jennings Firearms in 1978, Bryco
Arms, and later CalWestCo. Phoenix Arms succeeded Raven Arms in 1992. A Raven
MP-25, the .25 ACP pistol, is shown in Figure 1.11. The name of the company that made

Figure 1.11 The Raven Arms MP-25, chambered in .25 ACP, is a striker-fired blowback pistol.
The striker spring is cocked when the slide is retracted. The other spring is the recoil spring,
which sits in the shroud surrounding the barrel. (Image from author's collection.)

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

the casting, Lansco, as well as the MP-25 is visible with the grips removed. The simplic¬
ity of the design is readily apparent from this perspective. Jimenez Arms has continued
manufacture of the basic Jennings designs, albeit with a slightly more modern appear¬
ance. Cobra Enterprises also mimicked the basic Bryco design, with subtle cosmetic dif¬
ferences. These firearms were available in several calibers during their production run:
.22 Long Rifle, .25 ACP, .32 ACP, .380 ACP, and even 9x19mm in a larger frame. Like the
Colt 1908 Vest Pocket, these firearms were single action. The pistol must first be loaded
by inserting a magazine and then the slide worked to charge the weapon. The firing train
was a simple trigger bar married to a cam that locks and releases the sear. These designs
suffered from two major flaws: The firing pins have a tendency to break due to substan¬
dard material used to construct them, and the feed ramps can be of irregular quality. It is
not uncommon to encounter misfeeds due to ammunition being unable to chamber due
to a rough feed ramp. This is especially true with the .22 firearms, particularly when the
same ammunition has been cycled through the firearm a number of times by loading and
unloading.

The Hi Point family of pistols, to include Haskell, Iberia Firearms, and Bee Miller,
are also striker-fired, blow-back designs using a fixed barrel. These firearms feature a cast
frame with a distinctly large slide, relative to the size of the frame. They are available cham¬
bered in .380 ACP, 9x19mm, .40 S&W, and .45 ACP.

Emergence of the Polymer-Framed Pistol

The polymer-framed, double-action, striker-fired pistol appeared in the form of the
9x19mm H&K VP-70, introduced in 1970 and produced until 1989. There were two varia¬
tions of this pistol: The VP-70Z was semiautomatic. The second version, the VP-70, was
capable of operating as a submachine gun by attaching a shoulder stock. The stock con¬
tained the selector switch to permit full-auto firing, as attaching the stock interfaced with
the sear within the pistol. The VP-70 had a cross-bar-type safety that was manipulated by
a push button located by the trigger, similar to many rifles and shotguns. H&K marketed
the VP-70 in the late 1970s, but neither version achieved significant commercial success.
However, they set the stage for the polymer-framed firearm that featured high-capacity
double-stacked magazines, hammerless double-action-only operation, and a matte parker-
ized finish.

The appearance of the Glock 17 ushered in the new era of handguns. The tremendous
success of Glock in the commercial, law enforcement, and military markets has prompted
nearly every handgun manufacturer in the world to follow suit. The Glock’s patented “Safe
Action” is a variation on the striker system that incorporates three internal safety devices:
a trigger safety, a drop safety, and a firing-pin safety. None of the Glock safety features
is set manually, but each is defeated in series by a complete press of the trigger, and is
reset automatically when the trigger is released. The trigger is designed to have a “slack”
travel, whereupon resistance is encountered only after the first Vi inch of trigger travel. The
amount of resistance is determined by the installed trigger spring and trigger connector.
To the shooter, the physical feel of the trigger is more akin to single action, not double
action; however, the Glock is truly a double-action firearm. The press of the trigger, in addi¬
tion to defeating the safeties in succession, causes the trigger bar to move, which causes
the firing pin to cock against the firing-pin spring until the trigger bar releases the firing
pin when a complete trigger press is made. Since the trigger first cocks the action and then

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

Figure 1.12 The Smith St Wesson Sigma SW40E and magazine. The Sigma series were the first
polymer-framed pistols from Smith St Wesson. The trigger press had a more traditional double¬
action feel: long and smooth. Smith St Wesson chose to use steel-bodied magazines instead of
polymer. (Image from author's collection.)

releases it, this is a double action in the true sense of the definition, even if it does not physi¬
cally or tactilely conform to the expectation of the shooter in that sense.

The overwhelming commercial success of Glock has prompted many other manu¬
facturers worldwide to adopt a similar product. In 1994, Smith & Wesson responded
to Glock with their Sigma series handguns featuring a polymer frame for a striker-
fired, double-action-only pistol. The Smith & Wesson SW40E, chambered in .40 S&W,
is depicted in Figure 1.12. The appearance of the Sigma prompted litigation between
Glock and Smith & Wesson, later settled with Smith & Wesson paying an undisclosed
sum in damages and making a design alteration to the Sigma. The movement toward the
polymer-framed, striker-fired pistol did not end with the Sigma series; Smith & Wesson
released their M&P series pistols that featured polymer frames and were double action
and striker fired. The M&P series also includes AR pattern rifles and a series of revolv¬
ers. The success of pistols in this configuration has prompted Taurus International,
Springfield Armory, Ruger, Kel-Tec, and others to develop their own similar pistols. Even
manufacturers that have resisted the movement toward polymer have accepted polymer
or composite frames as the new norm, such as Beretta; the H&K USP pistols; Fabrique
Nationale’s FNP, FNX, and Five-seveN pistols; Walther’s P99, PPS, and P22; and numer¬
ous others, especially in the very compact concealed-carry pistol market. Brazilian man¬
ufacturer Taurus produces an extensive line of hammerless automatic handguns that are
both single and double action. This slight technical variation is given away only when
the trigger is pressed. There is a lighter press if the slide is retracted and released. Due
to the fact that these pistols are hammerless, there is no visual indication of the firing
condition, prompting many manufactures to install some form of indicator that reflects
a loaded chamber condition.

The double-action-only striker-fired firearm is deceiving. Many have difficulty in
grasping that such a design is truly double action only, because the trigger feel does not

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

behave in a manner consistent with that expected of the traditional double-action trigger
press as a shooter rooted in the traditional single/double action would expect. In the tradi¬
tional sense, the single-action trigger press was very short, crisp, and light compared to a
double-action press, which had a physically longer travel and heavier resistance; however,
modern double-action-only firearms have engineered this out of the design.

Manually Operated Firearms

Figure 1.13 shows examples of different types of manually operated rifles.

Breech-Loaded Firearms

Breech-loaded firearms are single shot. The breech is opened, and a single cartridge is hand
loaded. The breech is opened by a release lever, and the receiver hinges open to allow load¬
ing or unloading. Typically, breech-loaded firearms have spring loaded, automatic ejectors
built in that eject the fired casings from the breech when opened. These firearms operate on
single action and require the exposed hammers be cocked in preparation to fire. Double-
barrel and combination firearms are breech loaded. Double-barrel shotguns in particular
have two separate triggers, one for each chamber (see Figure 1.14). Breech-loaded firearms
are also called break action, break tops, or hinged action. Gilbert Harrington, cofounder
of Harrington & Richardson, patented the automatic shell ejection system and first applied
it to a revolver-type firearm (Harrington 1871). The Harrington & Richardson firm later
expanded this concept to include breech-loaded shotguns.

Figure 1.13 Examples of different types of rifles. Top: lever action. Bottom: bolt action. (Image
courtesy of BATFE.)

Figure 1.14 The Benelli Renaissance Classic, an over/under configured shotgun. The 20- and
28-gauge barrels are shown. (Image courtesy of Benelli USA.)

The World of Firearms and Ammunition

Lever-Action Firearms

Lever-action firearms were the first practical repeating arms to appear as the era of the breech-
loaded firearm was being eclipsed. The lever action operates by a lever, usually comprising
the trigger guard with a loop to permit the insertion of fingers through it. The lever is flipped,
which ejects the spent casing, loads a fresh cartridge, and cocks the hammer in prepara¬
tion to fire. The first lever-action rifle, the Spencer, appeared at the start the American Civil
War. Unlike later lever actions, the Spencer did not automatically cock the hammer when the
lever was worked; instead, the Spencer’s lever only unloaded and loaded the firearm. Later
designs combined these two separate operations into a single operation by working the lever.
American firearm manufacturers are well known for long and distinguished lines of repeat¬
ing rifles from such companies as Winchester, Marlin, Stevens, and Remington. Lever-action
firearms are fed by tube magazines located underneath the barrel. Repeating rifles remain
popular with hunters and cowboy action shooters and are basically unchanged.

There are few examples of lever-action shotguns. The Winchester Model 1887 is prob¬
ably the only significant example, and it has been copied by other companies subsequent to
Winchester discontinuing production. The Model 1895 by Marlin is likely the only lever-
action shotgun currently in production.

The popularity of the lever-action rifle has kept it in production for over a century. The
Winchester Model 1894 practically set the standard for lever-action rifles. The Model 94
was the product of continuous improvement on the part of Winchester and was continu¬
ously manufactured until 2006.

Bolt-Action Firearms

Bolt-action rifles such as the Lee Enfield, Mauser 98, Mosin Nagant, Mannlicher, and the
Carcano rely on the operator to manually operate the bolt per shot fired. On such weapons,
there is a handle attached to the bolt. Bolt-action rifles can either be a straight-pull bolt or a
turning bolt. In the case of a turning bolt, the bolt must be opened by lifting the handle up to
unlock the action and eject the spent casing. Sliding the bolt forward and turning the bolt han¬
dle downward then loads a fresh cartridge and locks the action in preparation to fire. Straight-
pull bolts work differently than turndown bolts. The Steyr Mannlicher M95 is an example of a
straight-pull bolt. In such a system, the bolt is pulled straight back from the receiver, ejecting
the spent casing; when the bolt is returned forward, the action is cocked, and a live cartridge
is then chambered. The bolt action was quite an advancement in firearm technology. The first
bolt-action rifles began to appear in the early 1870s, and they remained in front-line military
service until the end of World War II, when they were superseded by the appearance of auto¬
matic rifles, submachine guns, and the introduction of intermediate-caliber firearms. Despite
this, bolt-action rifles remained in service with smaller nations and were scattered all over the
world during the late nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries.

Bolt-action rifles can draw their ammunition supply from an internal magazine, from a
detachable magazine, or they can be single-shot firearms. Bolt-action arms are equipped with
an extractor on the bolt that automatically ejects the loaded casing when the action is opened.
Despite their age, bolt-action rifles are still very much revered for hunting, match target, and
precision-shooting operations. U.S. Marine Corps Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock used
a Winchester Model 70, a bolt-action rifle, as a sniper during his service in the Vietnam War.
The most recent addition to the arsenal of rifles available the U.S. Army is the XM-2010, a

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

heavily modified Remington 700. It may appear to be a totally different firearm, but its action
is still that of the 700. It is chambered in .300 WIN-MAG (Winchester Magnum).

Bolt-action shotguns mimic their rifle counterparts in operation and may be single
shot, contain an integral magazine, or have a detachable magazine. Mechanically, the
bolt-action firearm is extremely reliable and not generally subject to malfunction. Manual
safety devices are generally flip-type levers that lock out the trigger from the firing pin, or
crossbar-type safeties that consist of a push button on the trigger guard.

Slide- or Pump-Action Firearms

Slide- or pump-action rifles and shotguns are manually operated by the action of a slide or
pump that ejects and reloads the firearm each time the trigger is pressed, which unlocks
the action and permits the slide to be moved to the rear and then pushed forward. The slide
action operates by means of an action bar that connects the slide to the bolt. Some designs
use two action bars; other designs use a single action bar. When the action is cycled, it locks
the action closed and can only be released with a press of the trigger or by using an action-
bar lock-release lever.

The majority of slide-action firearms have internal hammers and are fired from a
single-action firing condition. Retracting the slide cocks the hammer, pushing the slide
forward, which loads the chamber and locks the action. Typical slide-action malfunctions
involve a “short stroke,” where the slide is not pulled rearward with enough force or the
travel of the slide is incomplete, hanging up the action. The result is typically a double feed,
where the casing from the chamber cannot be ejected because a cartridge has been par¬
tially pushed into position in preparation to load.

The Winchester Model 97 shotgun, perhaps one of the most famous shotguns ever pro¬
duced, has an external hammer. This allowed the Model 97 to be cocked or carried loaded
but with the hammer uncocked. The hammer could be cocked by action of the slide or by
hand. Another unique feature of this shotgun was its ability to “slam fire”; as long as the
trigger was held down, it would continue firing each time the slide was worked because the
design omitted a trigger disconnector. The Chinese company NORINCO later copied the
Model 97 and sold several versions of it in the United States, although redesigned with a dis¬
connector so that it would not slam fire. The Winchester Model 12 is also capable of slam fire.

Slide-action firearms can be fed through internal tube magazines located underneath
the barrel or by a detachable magazine. There are slide-action firearms that do not have
separate loading and ejection ports. One such example is the Remington Model 10 shot¬
gun; it has a single loading/ejection port located on the bottom of the receiver. Slide-action
shotguns (see Figure 1.15) are practically universal for use with law enforcement and mili¬
tary organizations. Slide-action rifles were never as popular as shotguns, probably because
the availability of auto-loading and lever-action rifles negated market interest.

Figure 1.15 Benelli Super Nova 12-gauge slide-action shotgun. The tactical configuration
model is depicted. (Image courtesy of Benelli USA.)

Ammunition Cartridges

Ammunition: A Backdrop

The ammunition cartridge, also known as the integrated cartridge, self-contained cartridge,
or fixed ammunition, is the product of a long and persistent process of evolution, refine¬
ment, and improvement in technology. Development of the ammunition cartridge has
been a combination of chemistry, metallurgy, and industrial technology It was the advent
of the self-contained cartridge that permitted a quantum leap forward in firearms technol¬
ogy—from arms that were muzzle loaded to those that were breech loaded; from weapons
capable of single shots to manually repeating arms and onward to self-loading firearms
and machine guns.

It can be said that cartridge technology developed in concert with small arms. As car¬
tridges became more powerful, firearms technology advanced to take advantage of them.
The reverse is also true: With progressive advancements in firearms, cartridges were devel¬
oped, often specifically for adaptation into this new technology. Like all human endeavor,
there have been many innovations, some proving to be enduring, almost timeless; yet oth¬
ers fell by the wayside without so much as a footnote in history to mark their passing.
Concepts, ideas, and theories come and go in the pursuit of the cartridge par excellence.
If ever there was a perfect cartridge, no one has ever agreed to what it was. To this end,
cartridge development continues to be an ongoing affair, with new ones emerging all the
time. These developments take the form of new projectile designs; new materials, revi¬
sions, or reworking of existing cartridges; or entirely new cartridges in dimensions not
previously seen.

There are so many different types of ammunition because of the broad range of con¬
sumers and uses. Ammunition has been the subject of at least as much hyperbole as any
given firearm. This exaggeration has gone in both directions, with the designers making
wildly overstated claims to sell more products, while those who oppose firearms present
equally outlandish and factually incorrect claims to suit their agendas.

The end of the Second World War saw a geopolitical shift occur, and two broad standards
in small arms* ammunition practices emerged, guided by the two diametrically opposed
sociopolitical ideologies that represented either side: the Western standard that continued
the use of ordnance-grade brass, and the practices of the Soviet Union, where the use of
brass was discarded in favor of less expensive but practical materials. The formation of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact further solidified the
political lines that divided the world. Nations that were influenced by either of the super¬
powers tended to mimic the practices of whomever they were receiving technical assis¬
tance and aid from, whether to establish an indigenous munitions production capability or

A small arm is typically defined as any firearm capable of being handled by an individual and having a
caliber less than one-half inch.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

to rebuild an existing industry. The net result was vast stockpiles of ammunition that were
amassed throughout the world, a mixture of cartridges ranging from postwar develop¬
ments to those whose use dated back to the turn of the twentieth century.

With the end of the Cold War and the subsequent collapse of communism in the
Eastern Bloc, production practices have again shifted. Producers once located behind the
iron curtain have continued to manufacture cartridges as they had during the Cold War,
but many have expanded to produce cartridges to the Western standard. Economics can be
considered the driving engine behind this, and there is the desire to reach out to a world¬
wide market as well as a movement of nations into NATO membership.

With the turn of the twenty-first century has come a series of conflicts across the globe,
and worldwide demand for ammunition has increased. In an April 2, 2009, press release,
Alliant Techsystems (ATK) reported it had increased production at the U.S. Army’s Lake
City Ammunition Plant “to more than 1.4 billion rounds annually,” a marked increase
from “350 million rounds annually” when ATK had assumed control of plant operations
in April 2000. The cartridges produced there include 5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, .50 BMG
(Browning machine gun), and 20 mm (Alliant Techsystems 2009). Even with this output,
Winchester Ammunition announced in June 2010 that it had been awarded a contract val¬
ued at US$43.4 million to manufacture .50 BMG SLAP (Saboted Light Armor Piercing) car¬
tridges for the U.S. military (Winchester Ammunition 2010). ATK announced on October
28, 2010, that it had received more than $200 million in orders to supply 5.56x45mm,
7.62x51mm, and .50 caliber ammunition from the U.S. Army Contracting Command. This
ammunition was manufactured at the Lake City Army Ammunition Plant, where ATK
claims to have manufactured more than 10 billion rounds since 2000 (Alliant Techsystems
2010). In August 2005, General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems was awarded a
five-year contract by the U.S. Army to deliver 5.56, 7.62, and .50 caliber ammunition. In a
press release dated March 15, 2011, the company claimed to have delivered 1 billion rounds
under that contract (General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems 2011).

Munitions producers seeking to capture a share of the worldwide ammunition market
retooled to meet the ammunition standards of potential customers, which generally shifted
to the Western standards in materials and calibers of ammunition. Producers in Eastern
Europe, the Middle East, and the Far East have shifted their ammunition production to
meet NATO requirements and produce NATO-caliber cartridges, even if they had not
been previously tooled up to do so. Demonstrative of this point, in 2003 the Russian muni¬
tions producer Barnaul started producing NATO-standard caliber small-arms cartridges,
and other Russian makers soon followed suit. Currently, all munitions manufacturers in
the Russian Federation manufacture NATO-caliber cartridges.

As defined by the United Nations, “arms, ammunition; and parts & accessories thereof”
imported into the United States rose steadily over the period between 2006 and 2009, as
seen in Table 2.1. In 2006, the value of these commodities imported into the United States
totaled $1,867,306,951. By 2009, the value had risen to $2,855,837,614, an increase of some
$988,530,633, an average of $329,510,211 annually. Great Britain was the largest trading
partner, totaling some $429,266,163. Germany, Italy, Austria, and Brazil accounted for
the rest of the top five, with imports totaling $274,790,890, $204,758,317, $189,795,857,
and $184,772,488, respectively. The remaining balance of $1,599,957,644 was shared by
Norway, Canada, the Russian Federation, China, Israel, and Spain, in that order (United
Nations Comtrade n.d.).

Ammunition Cartridges

Table 2.1 Value of Imported Arms, Ammunition, Parts, and Accessories into the United States

Source: United Nations Comtrade (2009).

According to the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2007 Economic Census, there were 107 estab¬
lishments involved in small-arms ammunition manufacturing operating within the
United States. In 2007, domestic production of small-arms ammunition was valued at
$2,338,684,000. The census data does not specify what percentage of the product went to
domestic commercial sales, export, or military consumers (U.S. Census Bureau 2007).
Perhaps some context can be referenced by the U.S. Army’s own numbers. The army’s
demand for small-caliber ammunition soared from 426 million rounds in 2001 to 1.5 bil¬
lion rounds in 2006, according to the Joint Munitions Command at the Rock Island Arsenal
in Illinois. “‘The government spent $688 million on ammunition last year (2006), up from
$242 million in 2001,’ said Gail Smith, a Joint Munitions Command spokeswoman. ‘The
most common rounds ordered are 5.56 mm, 7.62 mm and .50 caliber,’ she said” (Wilson
2007). These numbers correspond to demands placed upon available ammunition reserves
and production by U.S. military commitments in Iraq and Afghanistan, in addition to its
basic needs outside of the context of the combat theater.

A June 15, 2006, briefing note published by Oxfam International* stated, “At least 76
states are known to industrially manufacture small arms ammunition.” This capacity sug¬
gests an estimate of the annual global output of ammunition “to be in the region of 10-14
billion rounds, or between 27-38 million rounds per day” (Anders 2006). The primary con¬
tributors to this volume as reported were “thirty-nine per cent located in the Americas,”
“thirty-six per cent” in Europe and the Commonwealth States, and the balance, approxi¬
mately 25%, originating from various smaller nations in Asia, the Pacific region, Africa,

According to information published on their website, Oxfam "is an international confederation of 14
organizations working together in 99 countries and with partners and allies around the world to find
lasting solutions to poverty and injustice."

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

and the Middle East, including such states as China, India, South Korea, the Philippines,
Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates, and states within the Russian Federation.

Ammunition preferences in the criminal context are entirely dependent upon a num¬
ber of variables. The nuances of guns and crime vary greatly, ranging from matters of pos¬
session under unlawful circumstances, poaching and other sporting violations, robbery
with a firearm, and assaults and homicides involving gunshot as the manner of injury or
death. There is no reliable statistical data that can be drawn upon to truly determine what
the most common firearms, and hence ammunition preferences, used in crime are, and the
argument that certain types of firearms are “crime conducive” is an illogical statement at
best. At present, the best method to determine the most common firearms used in crime
relies on firearm trace data that is generated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms,
and Explosives (BATFE), although that data has admitted flaws. Firearms, as a general
rule, are specifically chambered to handle a single cartridge, and are legally identified by
that specific cartridge, even if said firearm is suitable for use with other cartridges. There
are exceptions to this statement, because firearms can be reconfigured to use a different
cartridge, and many are purpose-built specifically to support using different-sized ammu¬
nition cartridges.

Another variable in addressing the prevalence of certain ammunition cartridges over
others may be dependent upon geography. In venues where hunting game is common,
there may be a greater proportion of firearms, and hence ammunition, within the sport¬
ing calibers than in other venues where such activities are less common and the popula¬
tion of firearms in that region is different. As there is little demand for hunting arms in
urban environments, the prevalence of firearms in such a hypothetical scenario suggests
that other types of firearms may be more directly attributed to criminal activity, such as
small-caliber handguns that would have greater demand on the secondary gun market
due to ease of concealment and market preferences. Neither of these statements takes into
account the possibility that any firearm can appear anywhere under a criminal context.
This argument is made moot by the presence of more general-purpose arms such as shot¬
guns, which are abundant in all areas.

A 2002 revision of a 2001 study by the Bureau of Justice Statistics surveyed prison
inmates about where they obtained the firearms in their possession at the time of the cur¬
rent offense that caused their incarceration. It was reported that 13.9% of those surveyed
obtained the firearm by purchase or trade from a retail gun outlet (pawn shop, gun shop,
etc.). A high percentage of those surveyed, 39.6%, obtained the firearm from a friend or
family member in the form of a purchase, trade, rental, or loan. A nearly equal percent¬
age, 39.2%, obtained the firearm via illegal sources such as theft, black market, or from
secondary markets such as street transactions. Other, unidentified means accounted for
the remaining 7% (Wolf Harlow 2001). Since a firearm is of little or no value without
ammunition, the sources of acquiring ammunition for illicit purposes must also be sought.
According to a 2004 RAND Corporation survey of 2,031 persons who purchased ammuni¬
tion in the Los Angeles area, 52 persons had felony convictions or were otherwise legally
prohibited from making an ammunition purchase (Tita, Pierce, and Braga 2006). This
relatively small percentage suggests that the majority of prohibited persons who acquired
ammunition must have obtained it from other sources, perhaps coupled with their obtain¬
ing the firearm, including theft of the ammunition with the firearm, ammunition sup¬
plied from street sources, or ammunition received from the friend or family member from
whom the arm was obtained.

Ammunition Cartridges

Ammunition, regardless of the intended market or user, contributes greatly to the suc¬
cess of a weapon that uses it. Even the most efficient and practical weapons platform can be
compromised by ineffective ammunition. Effectiveness or ineffectiveness can be subjective,
strictly subject to the surveyor. The cartridge can be thought of as a platform, a base where a
projectile is expected to behave within a certain set of parameters based upon its size, mass,
and powder charge. But within the platform are a multitude of options to redesign or recon¬
figure some design element to enhance its performance, or to explore a different application
of the platform. The most popular cartridges can be configured into a wide variety of appli¬
cations, particularly if the platform is carried in the inventories of military forces and differ¬
ent operational needs have to be met. The .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol) is one of the most
widely used cartridges for personal defense, military and law enforcement applications, as
well as sport and target shooting. Evolutions in cartridge design take the form of different
gunpowder formulations to achieve specific design goals, such as increased velocity, reduced
muzzle flash report, environmental and health concerns, etc. The projectile performance
can be enhanced by engineering and design changes as well, making it lighter or heavier by
using different materials, and by tuning its physical shape and structure. Projectiles are pur¬
pose-designed for specific applications, though any projectile, regardless of design intent,
can be capable of inflicting serious or lethal injuries. Quite frequently, an existing cartridge
platform serves as the inspiration for a new cartridge altogether.

There are many hundreds, if not thousands, of different cartridges, the majority now
being obsolete or passing into obsolescence. More cartridges are extinct today than are com¬
monly encountered, having passed into history with improvements in technology, either in
some element of the ammunition or the guns that used them. The classic full-power, full-
sized rifle cartridges that served the world’s armies for nearly 50 years for the most part
gave way to changes in firearms technology as they transitioned from bolt action rifles for
the infantryman to automatic weapons. What keeps many of these cartridges alive is the
huge number of arms that still exist and shooter interest in them for recreational shooting,
collecting, and hunting. Archaic guns can still be found used in conflicts around the world,
for sustenance, or protective purposes, but clearly their days are numbered as they wear out
or are replaced by more modern equipment. In spite of technological advances, many car¬
tridges are practically timeless, remaining popular and viable platforms to use. Some are so
prolific that it is unlikely that they will disappear from the landscape any time soon. Any
given cartridge can be the subject of specific and in-depth study. This is particularly true of
military cartridges because numerous variations exist; there simply are no such things as
the “normal” or “regular” kinds of ammunition cartridges. Ammunition is designed from
the outset with an intended purpose. The three principle purposes of ammunition are:

• Lethal: Intended to cause injury that is serious, permanent, incapacitating, or deadly

• Training: Intended to improve shooting skills, with cost effectiveness and safety
in mind

• Less lethal: Intended to obtain compliance from an otherwise noncompliant sub¬
ject using pain and discomfort

Lethal ammunition is designed with the express intent to cause deadly or at least inca¬
pacitating injuries to the target. This is not to say that there is any guarantee that injuries
caused by such cartridges will cause death; there are many variables beyond the control of
the cartridge design that ultimately determine this. Factors such as shot placement within

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

the target body, total amount of traumatic injuries delivered, accessibility to qualified med¬
ical care, and physiological factors on the part of the target will play a significant role in
the net result realized by application of lethal munitions. That being said, it must always be
presumed that the application of lethal munitions will cause death. Lethal ammunition is
within the purview of military, law enforcement, personal defense, and hunting purposes.

Training ammunition is designed with the intention of facilitating a further under¬
standing and development of marksmanship skills. Training ammunition can take on
many forms, but dedicated training ammunition cannot be looked upon as being incapa¬
ble of causing death or serious injury. Training ammunition is a broad term; it could mean
wholesale low-grade ammunition sold at discount, or specialized, premium, match-grade
cartridges that are practically handmade for specialized competition use.

Less-lethal ammunition is designed to cause pain, discomfort, and perhaps temporary
incapacitation to gain the acquiescence of an otherwise noncompliant individual. As is the
case with training ammunition, less-lethal ammunition cannot be assumed to be inca¬
pable of causing death or serious injury. Less-lethal ammunition may cause either due to
misapplication of the ammunition or by unintended, yet unfortunate, consequences of the
application of less-lethal munitions. Less-lethal munitions largely fall within the purview
of law enforcement users.

Ammunition is referred to in any number of different terms: cartridge, self-contained
cartridge, bullets, shots, or rounds, to name a few. Technically speaking, these terms are not
all interchangeable, as they do not truly represent the same article. In less technical speech,
terms such as bullets are often applied but can lead to some confusion, particularly since
the term itself does not specify whether it is fired or unfired bullets. It is imperative that the
investigator use proper nomenclature and terminology and maintain consistency in its use
throughout the investigation. Defining an artifact as a “bullet” and then later referring to
the same artifact as a “round” or “cartridge” can be misleading to the users of that mate¬
rial down the line, as well as potentially creating issues for that particular artifact. For best
practices, it is recommended that whatever term is deemed best to use, that it be described
as either being spent or live, i.e., spent projectile, spent casing, fired casing, etc. The term
bullet, most properly applied, refers to the projected portion of a cartridge, or simply the
projectile. A properly applied adjective—spent or live—best accompanies whatever term
the user is most comfortable using. Other variables in ammunition are described in the
text and may be best applied when describing a particular artifact when it is encountered.

Cartridge Identification by Dimensions, Names, and Identifiers
Caliber

The use of the imperial system, using fractions of an inch and designated as caliber to indi¬
cate the interior bore diameter of the arm in question, originated with smooth-bore arms.
Since projectiles were bare lead, they were often undersized relative to the interior bore
diameter of the host firearm, allowing for a projectile to have a linen or paper patch that
was used to encase the projectile, a rudimentary form of jacketing, prior to ramming the
projectile down the barrel with the intention of reducing the fouling of the bore. With the
introduction of self-contained cartridges, the definition of caliber was amended slightly to
accommodate this change in technology. However, there has never been an established,
standardized protocol or convention for determination of caliber. The advent of the rifled

Ammunition Cartridges

Bore diameter
measures .50"
land to land

Bore diameter
measures .22"
land to land

Cal .22

Cal .50

Figure 2.1 Interior bore diameter measurement to ascertain caliber. (Image by U.S. Army.)

bore only complicated the situation, because now the caliber could be determined either by
measuring land to land or groove to groove. The land is the raised portion of the rifle profile
of a bore. The recessed portion is the “groove” (see Figure 2.1). Traditionally, the European
practice has been to use a deeper groove in a rifled barrel, mating it with a slightly under¬
sized diameter projectile, relative to the groove diameter. American preference tradition¬
ally has been to use a projectile that equals the groove diameter. The term caliber remains
somewhat elastic and can be defined by several different meanings:

• The interior diameter of the firearm bore, measured from land to land

• The interior diameter of the firearm bore, measured from groove to groove

• The interior diameter of the cartridge casing neck opening

» The diameter of the projectile at its widest circumference

• A value as assigned by the designer or underwriting firm

In its simplest form, the caliber is an expression of the decimal representation of a frac¬
tion of an inch, using the number ten as a base. The caliber is generally expressed in terms
such as, for example, .25, .44, or .68. In this context, it is not necessary to follow the numeri¬
cal expression with the term caliber, as it would be redundant. In speech, the term would be
stated as “25 caliber”; however, verbal expression of the term has included “point 25 caliber”
(stating the period as “point”). How the speaker wishes to express the term is entirely based
on one’s preference, as long as the term is used consistently in the course of the dialogue.

A cartridge or projectile that is expressed as .25 would suggest a literal caliber of25/100"
or V4"; however, this numerical value may be somewhat misleading. Many cartridges are
of dissimilar dimensions, as represented by their names. Many of the .44-class projectiles
have a true diameter of .429 instead of the advertised .44. Other examples include the .380
ACP (actual projectile diameter .355), the .38 Special (actual projectile diameter .357), and
the .357 Sig (actual projectile diameter .355). To further the point, the diameter of the .38
Super projectile is actually .355, just 1/250" in diameter narrower than the .38 Special,
which in turn is the same diameter as the more powerful .357 Magnum cartridge.' The
.30-30 Winchester, .30-06, .300 Winchester Magnum, and the .300 Holland & Holland
Magnum all share a common projectile diameter of .308".

With the exception of the length of the casing, the .357 Magnum is exactly the same as the .38 Special.
The term Magnum in firearms parlance indicates an extended or elongated cartridge casing, allowing for
a greater amount of powder to he filled.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.2 The term caliber can be deceiving, as evidenced by this cartridge comparison,
from top to bottom: .50 Browning Machine Gun (12.7x99mm), .408 Chey Tac, .338 Extreme,
and .444 Marlin. (Images from author's collection.)

When loading data is consulted, any specific “caliber” can be found to have a projec¬
tile diameter range that will seat in a particular casing. The range expresses a minimum
and maximum diameter, and the differential is measured in literally hundredths or thou¬
sandths of an inch. Caliber, at best, can be used as an estimation to determine the diameter
“class” of a particular projectile. The .40 S&W is a truly .40-class projectile, developed
by the gun maker Smith & Wesson. The .357 Sig, also known as .357 Sig Auto or simply
.357 Auto, was developed jointly by gun maker Sig Sauer and Federal Cartridge. Not to
be confused with the .357 Magnum cartridge, the Sig cartridge was designed for use in
autoloading pistols, while the .357 Magnum was designed for use in revolver-type hand¬
guns. Taking the two calibers strictly at caliber designation, there is no apparent difference
unless they are viewed, whereupon the differences are immediately noticeable. The .357
Magnum has a longer overall length, and has a cylindrically shaped casing with a full rim
so that it will fit in the step of a revolver cylinder, allowing for proper seating and ejection
from the cylinder. The .357 Sig cartridge is shorter and has a bottleneck-type cartridge cas¬
ing, appearing to be more of a small rifle cartridge than that expected of a handgun.

The most significant problem with caliber is that it fails to indicate the overall length of
the projectile or cartridge casing. In the early years of the self-contained cartridge, this typi¬
cally was not much of an issue, given the fact that there were relatively few cartridges on the
market. However, this changed so rapidly that the market filled up with synonymous sound¬
ing ammunition. It would surprise many to discover that the .357 Magnum, .30 Carbine, and
the .41 Magnum cartridge casings can be the same maximum length, 1.290", whereas the .44
Magnum and the .45 Colt are ever so slightly shorter at 1.285". It is a common assumption
that a larger caliber, say .44 Magnum, would be dimensionally larger than a .41 Magnum,
although they both are Magnum cartridges. Figure 2.2 depicts various calibers, although the
comparison of caliber values can vary greatly from the physical dimensions.

Hyphenations, Names, and Other Identifiers

Self-contained metallic cartridges were first identified using a hyphenated system. As there
was no convention or norm, this was voluntary, and not every manufacturer chose to fol¬
low it, so there are exceptions to the general guidelines. Cartridges were hyphenated in
two or three sets, such as the .50-70, .45-70, and .30-40. The first number designated the
projectile caliber, followed by the propellant charge defined in grains of black powder. In

Ammunition Cartridges

three-set designations such as the .45-70-350, the third number indicated the projectile
weight, expressed in grains. The practice of using hyphenations continued until the turn
of the twentieth century. The switch from black powder to smokeless powder rendered the
need to indicate the black powder charge redundant.

During this transitional period, it was not uncommon for cartridges to became
known by two different names, such as the .38 WCF (Winchester Centerfire), also called
the .38-40. There were still cartridges identified by hyphenations even well into the era of
smokeless powder, such as the .30-30 Winchester, which was never commercially loaded
using black powder, but Winchester stayed with the hyphenated nomenclature, which was
still in use when the .30-30 was introduced, and remains so to this day. When the U.S.
Army switched their standard cartridge from the .30-40 Krag, the new cartridge went
by a hyphenated name, .30-03. The .30-03 derived its name from its .30-class projectile
and the year of its introduction into service, 1903; thus the last two digits of the year now
replaced other information, i.e., the weight of the contained powder charge. The .30-03 was
superseded in three years by the .30-06, which promised superior ballistic performance.
The .30-06 drew its name in the same manner: .30 caliber-class projectile introduced in
1906. The .30-06 would later become universally known as .30-06 Springfield, for the U.S.
Arsenal at Springfield, Massachusetts (not to be confused with the commercial gun maker
Springfield Armory, located in Genesco, Illinois).

During World War II, the U.S. military brought into service another .30 caliber-class
cartridge; however, this cartridge had nothing in common with the .30-06. The .30 Carbine
defied the convention of hyphenated nomenclature and instead replaced it with a descrip¬
tor, in this case indicating the firearm, the Ml carbine. The cartridge was developed con¬
currently with the firearm and specifically for such.

Cartridges developed after the passing of the black powder era may still use hyphenated
names that may indicate other information that varies greatly, depending on the intention
of whoever named the cartridge. The Savage .250-3000 is a cartridge that was developed by
the Savage Arms company, using a .250-class projectile with a reported velocity of 3,000
feet per second. This cartridge is not to be confused with the .250/3000 Improved, a dif¬
ferent cartridge altogether. Another example is the .338/50 Talbot, which uses a .50 BMG
casing that has neck diameter reduced to .338. Obviously, the intention was to use the
large capacity offered by the .50 BMG casing to propel a relatively small projectile a long
range at an extremely high velocity. Such identifications are most commonly reported in
cartridges that fall under the categories of “Wildcat” or “Proprietary,” meaning that they
are not standard cartridges that could be expected to be encountered outside of custom¬
ized, special order, or limited-production guns or in specific circumstances. A slash may
be used in substitution for hyphens. The .38/200 cartridge is also known as the .38 British
Service. This cartridge replaced the .455 Webley as the standard sidearm caliber in British
and Commonwealth Armed Forces. The projectile was .38 class but weighed 200 grains,
a heavier projectile than used in other .38-class cartridges of the day, such as .38 Smith &
Wesson or .38 Super. In fact, the .38/200 was derived from the .38 Smith & Wesson car¬
tridge, but with the heavier projectile to satisfy the British preference.

It has been customary for cartridges to be named or to include an adjective as part of the
cartridge identification. Quite often it was the case that the firearm manufacturer also was
the sole producer of the cartridge for their firearm, hence the need to identify exactly what
cartridge was suitable for what firearm. This became particularly important, and more and
more cartridges were added, many of them centering on certain popular calibers, such as the

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

.45 class. Ammunition was often named for the designer, sponsoring firm, the manufacturer,
the intended user, or some other adjective that described its purpose or provided a catchy
name. It is not uncommon for a cartridge to be known by several names, even if it is not tech¬
nically correct. In the case of the .30-40 Krag, the cartridge was named using the old hyphen¬
ation system despite being designed for use with smokeless powder instead of black powder.
The cartridge featured a .30 projectile, a 40-grain smokeless powder charge, and Krag was the
name of the rifle it was chambered for, which in turn was named for the designers, Johannes
Krag and Erik Jorgenson. This same cartridge was later called the .30 Army; however, this
term never really gained as much acceptance as simply calling it the “Krag.”

Similarly, there are innumerable cartridges that are called the “Remington,” “Marlin,”
“Winchester,” “Smith & Wesson,” “Colt,” “Norma,” etc., so named for the firms that brought
them to market. These names may also provide a clue in providing the examiner with
more detailed information, such as “Long Colt,” “Short Colt,” “Browning Long,” “ACP”
(Automatic Colt Pistol), “Bergman,” “Bayard,” “Largo,” or “Browning Short.” The name
may describe the intended user, such as “Police,” “Government,” “NATO,” or “Army.” The
name may be an adjective describing something about the cartridge itself, even as a mar¬
keting ploy or something catchy: “Pireball,” “Express,” “Magnum,” or “Nitro.” In cases of
national calibers, terms such as Spanish, Turkish, Chilean, and so forth designate a particu¬
lar cartridge, even in a class of similarly dimensioned cartridges.

Metric System

The metric system was signed into accord by 17 nations in 1875 (International Bureau of
Weights and Measures n.d.). For the most part, signatories of the convention immediately
went to metrics and discarded the caliber. The United States and the United Kingdom were
loath to adopt the system and chose to remain on the Imperial system for the purposes of
small-arms ammunition. Ironically, during the same period that the metric system was tak¬
ing hold around the world, the state of the art of ammunition was changing dramatically.
As a result, cartridges originating from nonmetric nations continued the practice of caliber,
whereas in nations that went to metrics, their cartridges were identified by their metric mea¬
surement. The continental European military cartridges of the day were largely centered on
the 11 mm class, nearly one-half inch in diameter. By the early 1880s, this had started to
change, in keeping with the practice of the United States and Britain, who were switching
standard military cartridges from the larger calibers to those around .30", roughly 7 to 8
mm in diameter. These remained unchanged until after World War II and the start of the
Cold War. In Europe, ammunition was firmly based upon national preference. Each nation
developed cartridges for their own use; some exported it out to less industrialized nations
for use or armed their remote colonies with it as well. Unlike the caliber cartridges, metric
cartridge measurements provide not only the stated or indicated projectile diameter, but
also the cartridge casing length (not the overall length of the loaded cartridge that includes
the projectile, but only the casing). A metrically measured cartridge such as the 7.92x57mm
would indicate a projectile diameter of 7.92 mm with a casing length of 57 mm.

The prevalent conventions for cartridge measurement did not prevent companies and
inventors from naming a particular cartridge after themselves; using a descriptive term or
adjective in conjunction with the cartridge dimensions; or defining the application for the
particular cartridge, such as 9mm Parabellum (the term Parabellum being Latin meaning
“prepare for war”). This cartridge is known by many names, such as 9mm Para, 9mm Luger

Ammunition Cartridges

(named for Georg Luger), 9x19mm (the projectile diameter and casing length), and 9mm
NATO (when it was officially adopted as a standard NATO cartridge). In this particular
instance, it is important to note that a cartridge designated as 9mm NATO is precisely the
same dimensionally as any other 9x19mm cartridge; however, the 9mm NATO is loaded
to a considerably higher pressure and may not be suitable for use in all firearms cham¬
bered for the 9x19mm cartridge. The 9x19mm L7A1, manufactured by the Austrian firm
Hirtenberger, is the classic example. Although it is a 9x19mm cartridge by dimensions, the
pressure load is so high that it is deemed unsafe for use in anything other than submachine
guns or other long guns chambered for 9 mm. Another high-pressure 9x19mm cartridge
was made by Israeli Military Industries and sold under the UZI brand ammunition line.
The cartridges were identified by their black tip, but were of the ball variety. The cartridge
head stamp read “IMI 9mm” and “CARB,” presumably for carbine.

Cartridges Having Caliber and Metric Designations

There are cartridges measured in both caliber and metric measurement. The practice of
dual dimension is not new, starting in the late 1800s. There was concurrent firearm and
cartridge development in the United States and Europe, and these products were widely
exported. An example of dually identified cartridges includes the .380 ACP, also called the
9x17mm, but it is also seen as the 9mm kurz (kurz is German for “short”). The .25 ACP is
the 6.35mm, and the .32 ACP is the 7.65mm. Some manufacturers have labeled their .22
ammunition as 5.5 mm (but is actually closer to 5.4 mm); this is uncommonly used, but
is so identified in cartridges originating from China, the Russian Federation, and some
other nations. The .416 Barrett, a relative newcomer to the ammunition world, is metrically
expressed as 10.5x83mm and the use of the descriptor “Barrett” for the developing firm,
Barrett Firearms Manufacturing. Similarly, NATO standard cartridges must be identified
by a metric measurement, as the majority of the NATO partners use metrics. Therefore,
any cartridge that has any hope of becoming a NATO standard or recognized cartridge
must be measured metrically, even if originally designated by caliber. The NATO standard
cartridges include the 9x19mm, 5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, and the 12.7x99mm.

Other Identifiers

In addition to hyphenations, adjectives, or other names, some cartridges have a suffix that
presents additional information. The presence of an R indicates that the cartridge casing
is a rimmed type. A 7x57mm is a rimless design, whereas the 7x57R is a rimmed casing.
The Soviet 7.62x54mmR indicates that the cartridge has a full rim; however, the British
.303 cartridge, while also having a full rim, does not carry such indication. A caveat to
this guideline is the .500 Smith & Wesson Magnum cartridge, which may be designated
with an R suffix. In this case, the R indicates that a rifle-type primer is used to prime the
cartridge, as opposed to the cartridge having a full rim. The term SR indicates a cartridge
casing that is semi-rimmed. The .25 ACP, .32 ACP, and the .38 Super are calibers used in
semiautomatic pistols and all are all examples of semi-rimmed cartridges although the
term “SR” or semi-rimmed rarely appears in cartridge identifiers. The term JS, as in the
case of the 8x57mmJS cartridge, reflects a rather sordid history. The / has no meaning and
was applied due to confusion in the translation; however, the S indicates a “spitzer”-type
projectile. Despite this minor historical inconvenience, the term has stuck, probably as a
practical matter. Why create confusion when it was already confused?

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

When a cartridge is taken into military service, regardless of the commercial caliber
designation, it will receive a military model designation. These systems are entirely depen¬
dent upon the practices of the force utilizing the cartridge, and formal nomenclature has
been known to change from time to time. For any given cartridge in use by a military force,
there may be variations of the same cartridge, and each would receive particular designa¬
tions to differentiate one from another. Such variations include tracers, armor piercing,
training, blank, and match grade, among others. The same cartridge adopted by different
nations would receive different identifying nomenclature that would be unique to each
nation. Such is the case of the 5.56x45mm NATO cartridge loaded with the SS109 projec¬
tile, which is known by different nomenclatures by different nations: in the United States
as the M855, in Australia as the FI, in Canada as the C77, in the United Kingdom as the
L2A1, and in Germany as the DM11.

Shot Shells

Shot shells, as well as shotguns, generally are measured by gauge. The gauge is not a cali¬
ber as defined using metrics or imperial measurements. The gauge of a shotgun or the
diameter of a shot shell, that is to say the internal bore diameter of the shotgun barrel,
is determined by the number of lead balls of that diameter required to equal one pound.
In other words, a 12-gauge bore means that 12 lead balls of that diameter (approximately
72/100" or .72 caliber) would weigh one pound. In European circles, the term bore is often
used in lieu of the term gauge; however, gauge has more universal acceptance. The terms
are interchangeable for all practical purposes. The only common modern exception to the
use of the term gauge in shotguns is the .410, which is the caliber, and may only be properly
referred to as the caliber, and not the gauge.

From the definition of gauge, it is surmised that the smaller the numbers, i.e., 10 gauge
versus 12 gauge, the larger the bore. This definition should not be taken to mean that the
projectile(s) fired from a shotgun will be of that exact size of the bore itself; indeed, quite the
contrary is true. Conversely, the larger the number, 16 gauge versus 12 gauge, the smaller
is the bore diameter. Shotguns have been manufactured in gauges ranging from 4 up to
32 gauge. Gauges other than 12, 16, 20, and 28 are uncommonly encountered. Figure 2.3
compares various gauges. The largest gauge firearms are themselves highly specialized and
rare weapons indeed. As a subtle variation, certain high-end safari-style arms are smooth
bore and may be referenced either by gauge or caliber. Shotguns have been in existence for
so long, produced in so many different parts of the world, and for so many different appli¬
cations that esoteric and oddball sizes are to be expected. Shotgun gauges are generally
not associated with caliber other than to provide a form of context for understanding the
actual bore diameter of a shotgun, using inches as the guide. Table 2.2 shows the caliber
equivalent (measured in inches) for different shotgun gauges.

In addition to the gauge, shot shells are measured by the overall length of the shot
shell itself. Shells measuring 2%" (70 mm) in length are the modern standard; 3" shells
are referred to as Magnums, like other elongated cartridges; and 3V" shot shells are Super
Magnums. Shot shells shorter than 2%" length exist, as do shotguns that chamber them, but
they are largely collector’s items and oddities now, although the Mexican ammunition man¬
ufacturer Aguila manufactures 12-gauge PA" “mini shells.” These mini shells are available
in a variety of loads from slugs, light birdshot, and duplex. Unloaded shotgun shells, either
spent or virgin, are referred to as hulls. It is possible to inadvertently interchange smaller

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.3 (See color insert.) A cross-section of various size shot shells, from left to right:
12-gauge 3Vi" Super Magnum, 12-gauge 3" Magnum, 12-gauge 216-gauge 220-gauge 2
Aguila 12-gauge lW, and .410 3" shell. (Images from author's collection.)

Table 2.2 Shotgun Gauge
to Caliber Equivalency Table

Gauge

Caliber Equivalent

.83"

.77"

.73"

.69"

.66"

.63"

.61"

.58"

.55"

.52"

.410"

shot shells into larger gauge shotguns, such as loading a 20-gauge shell into a 16-gauge shot¬
gun, or even a 20 gauge into a 12 gauge. Such an interchange creates a hazardous situation
that, at a minimum, could jam the weapon, and in a worst-case scenario could cause serious
injury or even death. Generally speaking, it is safe to use a shell shorter than the chamber,
such as the case of shooting 2%" shells from a 3" chambered shotgun.

Aside from the bore and shell length, the shot shell is identified by the size, weight, and
type of shot that is loaded into the shell. When examining the shot shell, aside from the
gauge and the shell length, there are three additional numbers to note. These three num¬
bers are marked in a sequence, each separated by a space, hyphen, or slash. The first num¬
ber of the sequence is what is called the dram equivalent *; the second number is the shot

A dram is defined as being equivalent to 1/8 ounce or 60 grains in the apothecary system of weights; it is
also defined as 1/16 ounce, 27.34 grains, or 1.77 grams in the avoirdupois system of weights.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

charge; and the third number represents the shot size number, for example, the numerical
series 1 1/8-8. The dram equivalent is an archaic method, but still in use, that indicates the
equivalent amount of black powder that would be needed to produce the same projectile
velocity as a smokeless powder charge. The shot charge indicates the amount of shot loaded
into the shell by weight, given in ounces. A higher weight equates to a larger load; however,
this should not be taken to indicate that there are more pellets. Larger shot is not expressed
by weight but, rather, by the number of pellets loaded. The third number is an expression
of the shot size loaded in a particular shell. Internationally, there are slight variations in
shot size standards, as well as some variations of shot identification, depending upon the
material from which the shot itself is constructed.

Components of Fixed Ammunition

The diversity of legal venues defines ammunition in subtlely different manners. In some
venues, the term ammunition defines any singular component (i.e., primer, projectile, pow¬
der, or casing) that could be used in the construction of a functional unit of ammunition,
called a cartridge or fixed ammunition. Fixed ammunition would constitute the presence
of all necessary components assembled in a manner that renders it ready to operate when
inserted into a suitable firearm. Nonfixed ammunition refers to ammunition loaded into
weapons individually, such as the case of an artillery piece where the projectile is indepen¬
dently loaded from the propellant charge, which is separately contained. The definition of
cartridge or fixed ammunition may further be construed to include combinations of any of
the components; yet other venues define ammunition or cartridges as only when all the nec¬
essary components are present and only when they are assembled into the functional prod¬
uct. The legal lines may further be blurred by various exceptions, such as age, recognized
or articulable collector value and rarity, availability through routine commercial channels,
size, and design intent and purpose (such as whether it is deemed for sporting purposes,
armor piercing, etc.). Furthermore, many venues prohibit certain persons from having in
their possession ammunition or even ammunition components. Such persons routinely
prohibited from possession of ammunition could include those convicted of felony crimes,
the mentally incompetent, those present in areas where specific laws broadly prevent pos¬
session, and those prohibited by action of a court having jurisdiction over them.

The self-contained cartridge is comprised of four components:

1. A casing or hull constructed of metallic or nonmetallic material

2. A primer or internally contained ignition composition that detonates when acted
upon by an external force

3. A contained propellant charge that provides the energy for expulsion of the
projectile(s)

4. Projectile(s) either recessed within the casing or pressed into the opening at the
casing mouth

Cartridge Casing

The casing or hull is the container that holds all of the other components together as a sin¬
gle unit. The ignition source, propellant charge, and projectile(s) are all contained within

Ammunition Cartridges

fT) Bullet

cartridge case

Figure 2.4 A cross-section of a generic self-contained cartridge showing components. (Image
by Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives.)

the casing. Figure 2.4 is a generic anatomy of a typical center-fire cartridge. In addition
to providing the container that brings the sum of the parts together, the casing serves the
additional purpose of acting as a gas plug. The casing itself must be strong enough to with¬
stand pressure, however instantaneously, when the contained powder is detonated and the
gas created as a result of the detonation begins to expand. As a plug, it must seal against the
breech of the firearm, thereby preventing gas leakage back into the firearm, which could
not only create a hazardous condition, but may also deprive the projectile of performance
by diverting energy away.

One of the first observed characteristics of ammunition, in particular the casing, is
the shape. There are obvious differences in the shapes of casings: straight, tapered, cylin¬
drical, and the bottleneck (see Figure 2.5). The basic cylindrical-style casing can be of any
proportion relative to its length versus diameter. Many cylindrical-shaped casings have a
slight forward taper; however, this may be barely discernible to the eye, whereas there are
casings that are radically tapered, as is the case with the .22 Remington Jet cartridge. The
design of cartridge casings changed quickly, and a bottleneck shape took hold to replace
the straight casings of full-sized, full-powered rifle and, later, machine-gun cartridges.
Bottleneck-style casings, in contrast to cylindrical casings, start with a wide base and taper
down into a smaller diameter through a neck that resembles a soda bottle. The tapering is
referred to as the shoulders. The exact dimensions of where the cartridge begins to taper,
called the shoulder, and how radical the taper is vary greatly. There are casings with very
long necks as well as cartridges that have comparatively short necks in proportion to the
overall cartridge casing length.

From a design standpoint, the bottleneck cartridge casing is ideal. As the trend in
rifle cartridges changed from larger bore diameters in the .50" class and transitioned into
smaller bores, centered in the .30" class, the bottleneck casing allowed more space for a
larger powder charge pushing the smaller projectile. Bottleneck-shaped cartridges are not

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.5 Casing styles (from top to bottom): .45-70 Government, .45 ACP, .375 Holland &
Holland, and 5.45x39mm Soviet M74. In addition to the bottleneck design, note the tapering
of the .375 Holland &. Holland casing from base to shoulder. (Images from author's collection.)

limited exclusively to rifles; bottleneck cartridges developed for handguns were devel¬
oped as well. The 7.63x25mm Mauser (introduced in 1896), the 7.65mm Luger cartridge
(introduced in 1898), and the Soviet 7.62x25mm Tokarev (introduced in 1930) are all early
examples of the bottlenecked handgun cartridges, but not the only examples. It is not a
coincidence that the 7.62x25mm Tokarev is dimensionally similar to the Mauser cartridge,
the Russians having drawn their inspiration from it, with the caveat that the Tokarev car¬
tridge is slightly more powerful and, therefore, firearms chambered for the Mauser car¬
tridge would not be suitable for use with the Tokarev cartridge. As with rifle cartridges,
the bottleneck handgun cartridges allowed for larger powder charges propelling smaller
projectiles, truly a potent combination. The 7.65x25mm Mauser was a preferred Magnum
cartridge of its day and was ideally suited for the gun originally chambered for it, the
Mauser C/96, affectionately called the “Broom handle.” The C/96 had the ability to accept
a shoulder stock, turning it into a compact rifle, and in this configuration, the power of the
ammunition was not a hindrance.

The bottleneck handgun cartridges came and went, with the exception of the Tokarev,
its continued use guaranteed by the Soviet Union and then later by nations receiving mili¬
tary assistance from them, as well as numerous copies made in various countries. It is still a
common cartridge, given the millions of examples of handguns and submachine guns that
were chambered for it. The bottlenecked handgun cartridge was reintroduced to the world
in the early 1990s, in the form of the .357 Sig Auto. The Belgian firm Fabrique Nationale
and the German firm Heckler & Koch have both brought bottleneck handgun cartridges
to market: the FN 5.7x28mm and the H8tK 4.6x30mm.

A second identifiable feature of a cartridge casing is the rim design. The rim is located
at the base, or bottom, of the casing in the area identified as the cartridge head. There are
six basic rim designs: grooveless belted, semi-rimmed, rimmed, rimless, rebated rim, and
rimless grooveless.

The belted type has a pronounced “belt” of additional casing material running around
the circumference of the cartridge base above the groove. A belted casing is customarily
attributed to large full-powered cartridges used for hunting or long-range precision rifles

Ammunition Cartridges

and is the strongest casing type, capable of handling very high pressure loads. An example
of a belted casing is the .300 Winchester Magnum (normally known by the abbreviated
.300 Win Mag).

Semi-rimmed casings have a rim that projects slightly wider than the casing diam¬
eter. Rimmed casings have a rim that is markedly larger than the diameter of the casing.
Rimmed casings are most easily equated to cartridges intended for use with revolvers, such
as the .38 Special, .44 Magnum, .38 Smith & Wesson, .32 H&R Magnum, and so forth.
Rimless casings, despite the name, are not literally without a rim; the rim is simply the
same diameter as the casing. Rimless casings are the norm for autoloading firearms, com¬
monly the .40 S&W, 10mm Norma, and the .32 ACR

A rebated rim is a rim that is undersized relative to the casing diameter. Rebated rims
are an uncommon variety; recent iterations of rebated rim cartridges are the .458 SOCOM
and .50 Beowolf cartridges. The likely rationale behind the use of the rebated rim was to
simplify adaptation of these cartridges into the AR-15/M16 weapons platform. Rimless,
grooveless cartridges are archaic, having seen only limited use in the late 1800s and then
quickly discontinued. A rimless, grooveless cartridge literally lacks any form of rim and
groove, essentially giving the projectile a clean, cylindrical appearance.

The basic function of the rim and groove is to provide for the seating and subsequent
expulsion of the casing from the host firearm. The small recessed area around the circum¬
ference of the casing between the casing body and the rim is called the groove. The groove
provides the channel for an extractor claw to hold the casing and then subsequently expel
it, as is the case with an automatic firearm. Automatic firearms ordinarily chamber rim¬
less or rebated rim cartridges. The most notable exceptions were the .303 British and the
Russian 7.62x54mmR cartridges. The .303 cartridge was used in the Enfield series of rifles,
the BREN light machine gun, and a version of the Colt-Browning Ml919 machine gun.
The Russian 7.62x54mmR (the R indicating a full rim) has remained the staple full-size,
full-powered cartridge for Russian weapons since its inception in 1898. Arms chambered
for the cartridge include the Mosin Nagant rifles and carbines, the Russian DP and its
variants. The DP’s later successors, the PK and its variants, continue to use the venerable
7.62x54mmR, as does the infamous Dragunov sniper rifle. Rimmed cartridges, such as the
two aforementioned, do not have grooves, instead relying on the rim flange for the extrac¬
tor to grasp onto. Figure 2.6 shows a representative sample of rim designs.

Materials Used in Construction of Cartridge Casings

Since the conceptualization of self-contained cartridges, various materials have been used
to manufacture them. The first self-contained cartridges were constructed of linen or
paper. These early cartridges contained the black powder charge and the projectile, but
were ignited from an external source, having no contained means of ignition; the shooter
still had to rely on an external primer such as a percussion cap. Paper cartridges were very
flimsy and likely to break apart if not handled with utmost care. Paper was supplemented
by combustible linen, which was less fragile but was essentially the same for all practical
purposes. To ensure complete consumption and reduce the incidence of fouling residues,
the linen was often cured or impregnated with an inflammable substance.

The advent of the percussion cap in the early nineteenth century opened the door to the
development of the self-contained cartridge. By 1836, Prussian designer Johann Nicolaus
Von Dreyse had developed a self-contained cartridge using paper as the casing material, as

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.6 Examples of the cartridge rim styles (from left to right): .300 Winchester Magnum
(belted), 7.6x54mmR Russian (full rim), .38 Super (semirim), .308 Winchester (rimless), .50
Beowulf (rebated rim). (Images from author's collection.)

well as and the firearm to use it. Called the needle gun , the firearm did not literally fire a
needle; instead the term was coined because of the unique firing mechanism, which used
a needle to puncture the paper cartridge, detonating the percussion cap and expelling the
egg shaped projectile under the force of an explosive. It is worth noting that the Von Dreyse
needle system operates in a method that is exactly the opposite of modern, self-contained
cartridges, but the net effect is the same. In the Von Dreyse system, the percussion cap
was not seated at the base of the casing; rather, it was inserted well into the casing body,
and perhaps the majority of the powder charge was physically behind the cap. The needle
was required to pierce the casing and travel through the powder charge to initiate the
reaction. Despite some technical shortcomings, the idea was certainly very novel, and it
stands to reason that the Dreyse held tremendous advantages over its muzzle-loaded con¬
temporaries. Using a self-contained cartridge could only allow a greater rate of fire, even
from a single-shot weapon. Contemporarily, other concepts were developing, including
completely self-contained cartridges constructed of metallic and nonmetallic (envelope)
materials, both containing the means of ignition at the base of the casing.

The various systems that were developed in the early to middle nineteenth century
were quite often specific to the gun makers of the day and intended expressly for their
particular firearms. Ammunition was developed by the same interest that developed
the firearm system, and it was a logical business decision to try to maintain proprietary
ammunition sources and capitalize on that side of the market as well. According to Blair
(1962),

On the 10th of December, 1847, an English patent was granted to one Stephen Taylor for a
bullet containing the propellant charge in its base together with a lever-action repeating rifle
with which it was to be used. Taylor was merely the English agent for two Americans, Walter
Hall and Lewis fen nings, of whom the former was granted an American patent for the car¬
tridge on the 10th August, 1848.

Ammunition Cartridges

Horton Smith and Daniel Wesson received a U.S. patent for their “Improvement In
Cartridges” on August 8, 1854. Smith & Wesson specified, as part of the invention, that the
void or chamber between the impressed projectile and the powder charge within the casing
be filled with tallow, essentially a form of animal fat, which likely served two purposes. The
first would have been as a weather sealant and the second as a form of projectile lubrication
or bearing surface against the firearm bore. The primary claim to the invention was

the employment, in the cartridge, of the metallic or indurated disk or seat plate, so that it
shall rest directly on the powder, in combination with arranging the priming or percussion
powder in the rear of said disk, or on that side of it opposite to that which rests against the
powder, our said arrangement of the disk and priming affording an excellent opportunity for
applying the force of the blow by which the priming is inflamed, such force being applied in
the line of the axis of the cartridge. (Smith & Wesson 1854)

On December 15, 1863, U.S. Patent 40,988 was granted to Thomas J. Rodman and Silas
Crispin. This patent concerned an “Improvement In Metallic Cartridges” and described it
as a “metallic case formed of thin wrapped sheet metal” (Rodman and Crispin 1863). This
patent references brass, as well as other metals, as a suitable substance for the manufacture
of small-arms cartridges. Note, however, that the process of manufacture was not drawn
metal, but rather thin strips of metal that were wrapped to form the desired cartridge
shape. The result was a cartridge with a somewhat coarse outward appearance. These are
but two examples of a plurality of cartridge patents that were filed and granted concerning
the introduction of self-contained cartridges and the various “improvements” that differ¬
ent persons put forth on that principle.

A composite or hybrid option was proposed by I. M. Milbank, who in 1872 claimed
as his invention “a cartridge-case made with a metallic cup-shaped base and paper cyl¬
inder, connected together and rendered waterproof by soluble glass or silicate of soda”
(Milbank 1872). There can be little doubt that his hybrid cartridge casing served to inspire
later inventors when the question of material choice for casings came back around and
alternatives to metallic casings were sought.

In 1866, the United States officially adopted its first metallic center-fire cartridge, the
.45-70 Government. The British followed suit shortly thereafter in 1867 when Great Britain
officially adopted its first metallic cartridge. With the general acceptance of the self-con¬
tained metallic cartridge, millions of percussion-fired weapons were effectively rendered
obsolete. Designers went about developing methods of converting these existing stockpiles
of arms to chamber the new type of ammunition. Such was the case of American Jacob
Snider. His ideas were rejected by the U.S. Ordnance Bureau, but his work caught the atten¬
tion of the British government. The British pattern rifle was converted and became known
as the Enfield/Snider, chambered in .577". Initially the cartridges of this caliber, designated
the Mark I, were fabricated from paper, but they had a metallic case head, consistent with
American Hiram Berden’s cartridge design, which had been patented in 1866. The later
Mark II cartridges were formed from rolled brass, giving them a distinctive rough-hewn
and coarse appearance (Hamilton 1916). “Cartridge cases made from drawn brass were not
introduced into England, except for machine gun use, until after the Egyptian campaign
of 1885” (p. 4).

During the 1870s and into the 1880s, most European nations had discarded the
musket for military purposes and had transitioned to single-shot or repeater-type

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

breech-loaded firearms. The transition of commercial and sporting arms from the muz¬
zle loaders to repeater arms occurred simultaneously. The decision on the cartridge size
to be used was largely a national one. The first self-contained cartridges did maintain
the musket-based thinking of large bores, which led to the first self-contained cartridges
such as the black powder loaded 11x60mm Mauser, which came into service in 1871 in
the Mauser Gewehr 71. The big-bore concept was relatively short-lived, and by the 1880s,
cartridge and firearm thinking had shifted to cartridges in the 6-8-mm bore-diameter
class. Cartridge preferences continued to be one of national identity, so any basic rifle
platform, whether a Mauser, Mannlicher, Schmitt Ruben, Enfield, or Krag, could be
found chambered for any given cartridge, depending on the demands of the customer.

Brass remained the material of choice in cartridge production until the Second World
War. During the war, munitions producers in the United States moved away from using
brass exclusively and manufactured steel casings for small-arms caliber cartridges, most
notably in M1911 .45 ACP cartridges, as well as some production of the .30-06 cartridge.
Germany and the Axis allies used brass during the rearmament period in the years pre¬
ceding the Second World War and into the early part of the war. By midwar, however,
substitutes for brass started to appear, and casings made of steel, zinc, and other lesser met¬
als that put less strain on strategic materials and industrial commitment were used. The
United Kingdom and the Commonwealth nations produced ammunition predominantly
using brass casings. The Japanese ammunition and small-arms output suffered as the tide
of battle turned against them. As the end of the war approached, Japan had resorted to
soft iron for cartridges and even projectiles because of the widespread scarcity of stra¬
tegic materials. The Soviet Union had utilized brass but moved away from it and started
using steel in the mid-1930s and had completely switched over by the late 1940s, again as a
means of conserving more valuable materials. With respect to modern ammunition—rim
fire or center fire—brass and steel continue to be the materials of choice. Figure 2.7 shows
examples of cartridges using different casing materials.

Brass

The term brass is often used by the layman to refer to fired or spent casings, even if they
are not actually made of brass. Brass is a mainstay material used in the construction of
cartridge casings. The use of brass has distinct advantages: It is strong yet elastic, so that it
is easy to form and work with in mass production; it is durable enough to ensure that the
cartridge will function in various environmental conditions and exposures; and it creates
little friction and thus is also not likely to cause sparks in a volatile environment (such as
a munitions plant). This low friction also reduces the chances of binding up the mechani¬
cal action of a firearm and therefore reduces the possibility of a malfunction. Since brass
is slightly malleable, it is ideal with respect to its ability to flex and bend when sealing the
firearm breech against gas leakage back into the chamber, forcing the gas forward down
the barrel, called obturation. Leakage or loss of gas pressure into the chamber not only
results in reduced ballistic performance, but it could potentially create a hazardous condi¬
tion should the pressure rise above the ability of the action to sustain it.

Brass is not the perfect material and it does have drawbacks, notably weight and cost.
Weight is typically not a factor for the general consumer; however it is a factor for military
personnel, who must shoulder sufficient quantities of ammunition in the course of a mili¬
tary operation. It is also an expensive material when compared to other potential candi¬
dates. Brass will likely remain the material of choice for the foreseeable future, but research

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.7 Examples of .223/5.56x45mm cartridges using different casing materials. From left
to right: commercial brass, green steel, gray steel, U.S. military brass, and nickel-plated brass.
The variety of projectiles is also worth noting. (Images from author's collection.)

into alternatives is ongoing, and it is reasonable to presume that alternative materials will
at least supplement the use of brass. It has been long established in the Western standard to
use brass; however, brass is not a universal material worldwide.

Brass used in munitions manufacture is often called cartridge-grade brass and gener¬
ally follows an alloyed composition of 70% copper and 30% zinc. New brass has a bright and
shiny appearance, but it tarnishes when exposed to the elements or simply by exposure to
oils present in fingerprints or other solvents and oils associated with firearms handling and
maintenance. In some instances, brass cartridge casings may have a distinct burnished look
that is the result of the casing being heat treated (annealed). It is almost universal that brass
cartridge casings are annealed as a measure of protection against degradation due to envi¬
ronmental exposure. This is the norm for ammunition manufactured to U.S. military as well
as NATO specifications. Commercially sold ammunition cartridges made of brass may have
also been heat treated, but typically the discoloration is buffed away in the interest of aesthet¬
ics. Investigators searching for spent casings made of brass should be mindful that the brass
will dull and tarnish over time; however, it will remain intact for a very long period of time.

Brass is readily and easily located by contemporary metal detectors when investigators
search for spent casings or live ammunition. When using metal detectors that discriminate
between metals, the users should be aware that they may not only be seeking brass, but
other potential metals as well, which depend entirely on the material used to construct the
casing. When searching for fired casings, the metal detector may indicate the presence of
copper, steel, or nickel.

Aluminum

Aluminum-cased cartridges are manufactured by Blazer, a division of ATK Commercial
Products. These aluminum-cased cartridges are marketed primarily for general target
shooting and training applications. These cartridges were formerly marketed by CCI

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

(Cascade Cartridge International) and later as CCI/Speer, so it is possible to encounter
these casings marked in either manner. This ammunition also uses a lead-free priming
compound, and the primer is marked LF (lead free). In addition to aluminum-cased car¬
tridges, Blazer produces a separate line of cartridges using brass. Blazer’s sibling, CCI, cur¬
rently manufactures Rimfire cartridges in the .22 class and in .17 HMR (Hornady Magnum
Rimfire) as well as handgun-caliber shot shells. The shot shells use an aluminum casing
that is topped with a plastic cap. The M35 shot shell entered service with the U.S. Navy in
the early 1950s. Sufficient quantities remained in stock such that this vintage ammunition
has been offered for sale commercially in case quantities. The M35 was used for competi¬
tion, training, and was also intended for use in shotguns that were standard equipment in
emergency survival kits. The M35 was loaded with No. 6 shot.

Steel

Steel casings are the most commonly seen alternative to cartridge-grade brass casings.
Steel casings primarily originate from the Russian Federation, China, North Korea, and
the Eastern European nations, as well as Second and Third World nations with domestic
munitions production capability that were influenced by these nations. The steel casing
comes in two varieties, including a base-steel casing and a bimetal casing, consisting of
base steel that is coated with a secondary metal such as zinc, nickel, brass, or copper. Such
casings have an appearance of being constructed from the coating material. Base-steel cas¬
ings have an appearance ranging from dark brown to galvanized gray, and various shades
of green. In 2010, Hornady Manufacturing, a U.S.-based ammunition producer, announced
they were introducing steel-cased cartridges in the Russian 5.45x39mm and 7.62x39mm
to their product line. This steel-cased ammunition is lacquer coated as a weatherproofing
agent. This move by a major American manufacturer indicates the apparent popularity of
these cartridges with the American shooter. In general, the use of steel casings in certain
firearms not specifically designed for them is discouraged, as the casings tend to prema¬
turely wear ejectors and extractors in autoloading arms. Steel-cased ammunition is not
recommended for use in firearms that have a fluted chamber.

Nickel Plating

The major ammunition manufacturers such as Speer, Hornady, Winchester, Magtech, and
others offer nickel-plated casings. The nickel-plated casings often serve as a way of differen¬
tiating a particular line of ammunition when the manufacturer produces several different
lines of cartridges, particularly a premium line. Nickel is said to have certain performance
advantages over brass in that a nickel-plated casing will feed more smoothly and reliably in
a self-loading firearm. Nickel casings have a bright, silvery appearance at first but can dull
or tarnish over time. Chemically blackened nickel is also used, providing a matte tone to
these casings, again to distinguish that particular product line and perhaps as a measure to
subdue the ammunition for tactical purposes. Inert dummy cartridges may be completely
blackened and overtly resemble live ammunition; thus careful inspection must be made to
ensure that they are properly identified as either inert or live to avoid a hazardous situation.

Shot Shells

Three major materials have been used to manufacture hulls for shot shells: brass, paper,
and plastic (see Figure 2.8). Brass was the first material to be used, and the practice con¬
tinues today. It is possible to purchase newly minted brass shot shells either as loaded

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.8 Examples of .410 shot shells constructed of brass and paper. The paper shot shells
are vintage Winchester Super X; the brass shells were produced by the Russian firm Barnaul.
(Images from author's collection.)

cartridges or empty hulls ready for custom loading. Brass shot shells are more expensive
to purchase than plastic- or paper-hulled shot shells, but brass shells afford the shooter the
economy and convenience of reuse and reloading to suit individual needs. Brass shot shells
are uncommon compared with paper or plastic hulled shells, but their use has persisted
over the years. The life span of a brass shot shell can be well in excess of 150 firings so long
as the casing is not ruptured or otherwise damaged. The most likely cause of failure in a
brass shot shell would be (a) repetitive use in a self-loading or slide-action shotgun, where
the rim would be exposed to repeated extraction and ejection, which would cause the rim
to wear and bur and possibly lead to malfunctions, or (b) overcharging the cartridge by
using too much powder. Brass shells could be expected to have the longest life span in a
breach-loaded, single-shot shotgun. Brass shot shells are manufactured by the Brazilian
munitions manufacturer Companhia Brasileira de Cartuchos and the Russian based firm
Barnaul. Barnaul also manufactures steel shot shell hulls that can be either brass plated or
left in natural base-steel appearance (Barnaul Cartridge Plant n.d.).

Paper

Paper-hulled shot shells appeared quite early as an alternative to brass shot shells. The
paper was almost universally a laminated type or pasteboard that had some weather-resis¬
tant characteristics about it, although when exposed to moisture they would inevitably
swell and become unusable. Paper shot shells were cheaper than their solid brass counter¬
parts, but the use of paper shot shells fell out of favor with the market for quite some time,
most likely because of the fragile nature of paper shells versus brass or plastic. However,
paper shells have not totally disappeared from the landscape. They can be found on the
second-hand market quite regularly; often the boxes are more valuable than the shells as
collectible pieces of firearms ephemera of the bygone era. The shells themselves may or
may not be functional, depending entirely on the environment they were stored in. New
production paper shot shells are manufactured by Federal Cartridge, Fiocchi, and Sellier &
Bellot. Chinese-sourced paper-hulled shot shells were in circulation in the United States as

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

of the mid 1980s and can still be expected to be encountered from time to time. Paper shot
shells may be especially prevalent in venues where ownership of firearms or ammunition is
heavily restricted; the use of paper shells may deter stockpiling and certainly does prevent
fired hulls from being reloaded.

Plastic

The material of choice in modern hulls for shot shells is plastic. By 1960, plastic-hulled shot
shells came on the market, rapidly took hold, and have become the standard for all gauges
and loads with all manufacturers. The colors used are varied, and red, yellow, orange, black,
green, and even clear plastic will be encountered. Some companies mint plastic hulls in
certain colors to complement a particular line of shell. Remington Arms has manufactured
its law enforcement-oriented shot shells with green hulls, while Speer has manufactured
them in blue and red. Whatever the color, manufacturers use deliberately bright colors
for high visibility, helpful to hunters who inadvertently drops their shells in the hurry of
trying to load while watching the game slip away. Hence, no particular emphasis can be
placed upon mere observation of a particular hull coloring.

Regardless of the material used to manufacture the hull, the case head, which is the
lower portion of the shell that contains the primer, is made of metal, typically zinc, brass, or
nickel. A distinguishing characteristic of shot shells is the length of the case head. Referred
to as “high” brass or “low” brass (even if the case head is not literally made of brass), the
length of the head is readily visible by observation. High-powered shot shells use high brass
bases, while low brass shells are for less powerful loads. The mistake is often made that
the Magnum shot shells are all high brass; this is not the case, as there are low-pressure
versions of Magnum shot shells manufactured. The top of the plastic shot shell is typically
sealed with a crimp. This crimp is the folding of the hull material into itself, giving it the
appearance of triangles folding into a center point. An alternative to a crimped top can be
a circular insert that is pressed into the top and seals the contents. In the case of slugs, the
leading portion of the slug is visible.

Polymer-Cased Cartridges

The use of polymers in the manufacture of cartridge casings other than shot shells has
come and gone numerous times since the development of modern plastics. Plastic cas¬
ings have appeared at various times in modern history in an attempt to develop a viable
and cost-effective alternative to metallic casings. There have been suggestions that plastic-
cased cartridges could have been manufactured in France as early as the late 1800s. The
German munitions firm Dynamit Nobel (now part of the RUAG Ammotec Group) manu¬
factured polymer-cased cartridges in 7.65mm Browning, 9x19mm, 5.56x45mm, .30 Ml
(carbine), .30 Ml (.30-06), 7.62x51mm NATO, .303 Enfield, 7.92x57mm, and .50 BMG
(12.7x99mm). The company produced two different types of plastic ammunition: the PM
(Plastic Man oeuvre), a blank; and the PT (Plastic Training), a live cartridge that expelled
a projectile when detonated. The PM cartridge would not cycle an automatic weapon with¬
out the use of a BFA (blank fire adapter). The PT-type cartridges also required a special
adapter to properly function in an automatic firearm. The PT cartridge was designed for
short-range training and was produced primarily in blue casings; however, white casings
were also produced. The PM cartridges can be distinguished from PT by a series of serra¬
tions or cuts along the nose of the cartridge. The PT cartridges have been observed colored
red, black, or olive drab green; however, other colors likely were produced as well. The

Ammunition Cartridges

Norwegian munitions firm Nammo AS manufactures special training cartridges desig¬
nated as PSRTA (plastic short-range training ammunition) in NATO-centric small-arms
calibers (Nammo 2012).

Polymer-cased ammunition manufactured by the Washington State-based United
States Ammunition Company appeared in the mid-1980s. The cartridge had a white poly¬
mer casing with a metallic base. The production was apparently short-lived, and very few
examples probably exist today. Production appeared to be limited to handgun caliber car¬
tridges: .38 Special, 9x19mm, .44, and possibly .45 ACP.

Another attempt to bring the polymer-cased cartridge to market came in the form of
the PC A (polymer-cased ammunition) Spectrum, produced by a company called Natec,
formally Amtech. Inspection of period ammunition known to have been produced by this
firm shows that they manufactured .223 ammunition loaded with either 55- or 62-grain
projectiles. Once again, the obvious technical problem with polymer casings (reliable feed¬
ing and extraction without tearing the back of the casing off, with resultant malfunction)
was met by making the case head of brass, and then using polymer for the balance of the
casing body. These cartridges have been observed in five different colors: blue, white, gray,
black, and tan. The head-stamp marking consisted of “223 REM PCA” and “03” or “04,”
indicating that manufacture took place between 2003 and 2004. Preceding the production
of .223 cartridges, Amtech manufactured a polymer-cased .38 Special cartridge. The cas¬
ing itself is black polymer that is seated on an aluminum case head. The loaded projectile
is a truncated nose type. These cartridges apparently were produced starting in 1992, with
a production run lasting approximately one year.

In 2003, the Polytech Ammunition Company (no apparent relation to the Chinese fire¬
arms manufacturing consortium) produced .38 Special cartridges that outwardly resem¬
bled other polymer-cased cartridges. Polytech cartridges used a black cylindrical polymer
sleeve that met a metallic case head. These cartridges were marketed under the trade name
Spitfire. Once again, it does not appear that these cartridges were produced in significant
numbers or for a great length of time, and the remaining examples are more at home in
collections than in use, but it is always possible that some new old stock may appear. The
Spitfire name should not be confused with the 5.7mm Spitfire cartridge developed in the
early 1960s.

A recent development in the polymer-cased cartridge concept has appeared in the
form of the cased-telescoped cartridge. This technology is currently being developed
by AAI/Textron under the U.S. Army’s LSAT (Lightweight Small Arms Technology)
Program. The cased-telescoped cartridge in its current form is an all-plastic cartridge
with a projectile that is recessed into the casing. The cartridge, by design, seeks to elimi¬
nate the immediate concerns of plastic-based cartridge casings, i.e., cyclic reliability*
and thermal resistance. The cased-telescoped cartridge is a cylindrical shape that lacks
the traditional extractor groove located at the rear of the casing; hence, the need for
a metallic case head is eliminated. Test platform weapons using cased-telescoped car¬
tridges have a separate barrel and chamber to eliminate “cook off” (unintentional firing
of a chambered cartridge occurring as a result of heat transfer from the firearm that

The reliability issue is twofold. The first is that polymer casings can tear when subjected to the force of a
metallic extractor interacting with the polymer. The second is the unsupported portion of the casing that
may flex or distort, causing a weapon failure. Both issues are compounded by heat accumulation within
the firearm that may soften polymers.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

causes the powder to ignite) and heat-induced casing deformity. The cartridge is fed
from a feed tray into the chamber in a straight-through motion. The chamber itself fully
supports the cartridge, which is to say that there is no part of the casing body that is not
contained within the chamber when the cartridge is loaded. After firing, the spent casing
is pushed out of the chamber by the incoming cartridge as it moves into firing position.
This movement further works to disperse heat, complementing the separate barrel and
chamber design (Shipley 2010).

At the 2009 National Small Arms Conference in Las Vegas, Nevada, a partnership
between Colt Defense and BML Tool & Manufacturing presented two alternatives to brass
cartridge casings in military applications. The two approaches were based upon the size of
the cartridge in question. The concept proposes that larger caliber (above .50 BMG) casings
could be fabricated from a hybrid steel and polymer in a “modular casing” approach. This
modular casing, as proposed, is an inert skeleton. The powder charge comes in the form
of a “charge vessel” that is stored separately and installed into the skeletonized casing on
demand. In this concept, it is possible to stockpile components while not stockpiling live
ammunition. There is also a second variant that takes on a more conventional approach
to assembly. This approach to small-arms cartridge cases is a “spiral casing” molded from
polymer with a separately molded casing base. The presented prototype has a distinctively
spiral appearance that is claimed to add “approximately 50% more perimeter for bonding
and joint strength.” The spiral casing also claims a 40-47% weight reduction as compared
to brass casings (Brown and Battaglia 2009).

In 2011, PCP (Lightweight Polymer Cased Ammunition), a company based in Orlando,
Florida, announced it was producing polymer-cased cartridges. Images available for view¬
ing on the company’s website indicate a casing that has a brass rim and groove coupled to
a white casing body and a black upper portion that comprises the upper one-third of the
casing, including the neck.

Caseless Ammunition

Caseless ammunition eliminates the traditional cartridge casing as a container, making the
powder charge itself the casing. There is no container per se, as the name caseless implies.
The concept has been subject to extensive research and has proven to be a viable and attrac¬
tive alternative to traditional cased ammunition. A January 1965 report published by the
U.S. Army Ordnance Corps indicated that the concept of caseless ammunition was well
underway using a design by the Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation. The cartridge was
described as a .30" primed projectile configuration for a caseless liquid-propellant/dual¬
projectile gun system (Scanlon, Quilan, and Vanartsdalen 1965). The report recommended
that further research be continued because the concept demonstrated merit. From a tech¬
nical standpoint, a potential benefit of using caseless ammunition is that the firearms using
such ammunition could potentially have a higher rate of fire because the post-ignition
processes of ejection, extraction, and reloading in a traditional action would be eliminated
if there were no residue (i.e., fired casing) to expel, as the container had been consumed. In
addition, caseless ammunition has the potential to reduce the encumbrance of the ammu¬
nition bearer, as the cartridge casing alone can account for roughly 40% of total cartridge
weight. The principle disadvantage is that the price per cartridge unit has not been able
to match the cost of traditional cased cartridges, as well as having to bear the significant
investment required in issuing the new cartridges and training personnel on the weapons
systems that would employ such a cartridge.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.9 (See color insert.) Caseless-telescoped cartridges. (Image courtesy of Paul Shipley,
AAI Corporation.)

Heckler & Koch, in partnership with Dynamit Nobel, developed a caseless ammuni¬
tion designed exclusively for the H&K G-ll rifle. The rifle appeared in the NATO rifle
and ammunition test trials that took place between 1976 and 1979. While no agreement
could be reached concerning a standardized NATO rifle during those trials, the proj¬
ect continued to be developed until the early 1990s, when the reunification of Germany
prompted the partnership to abandon the project, and it passed into the hands of the
U.S. Army. Research and development continues in caseless ammunition, now designated
the caseless-telescoped cartridge. Testing and evaluation of the caseless-telescoped car¬
tridge is conducted under the auspices of the U.S. Army LSAT (Lightweight Small Arms
Technology) program. The cartridge itself has undergone numerous technical changes.
The current iteration of this cartridge has a projectile that is recessed into the cartridge
body. This projectile is enclosed in a plastic cup that is somewhat synonymous to a shot
cup in a shot shell. Upon detonation, the projectile punches a hole in the cup as it expels
from the firearm. The cup itself is not consumed but instead is broken up, and its rem¬
nants can be found on the ground where the firing occurred, having also been expelled
with the projectile. The caseless-telescoped cartridge is shown in Figure 2.9 (Shipley 2010).

The Austrian firm Voere is the single entity that produces a commercially available
rifle chambered for caseless ammunition. According to the information published by the
manufacturer, the cartridge is composed of a nitrocellulose-based compound that is deto¬
nated by a booster ignition charge in lieu of a conventional percussion primer. The high
cost of the ammunition and rifle contributes to the relative rarity of these firearms.

Daisy, better known for manufacturing BB and pellet air guns, briefly manufactured
a rifle that fired a caseless .22 cartridge called the Daisy V/L (see Figure 2.10). According
to the company, it was invented by Jules Van Langenhoven, whom the V/L is named after.
The cartridge itself consisted of a .22 projectile coupled to a propellant compound that was
ignited by superheated air. This product was announced to the public on August 20, 1962.
Production was short-lived, however, as the BATFE determined that the V/L constituted a
firearm, and Daisy was not a licensed manufacturer of firearms. New old-stock .22 V/L and
the Daisy rifles regularly appear on the second-hand market as collector’s items. The .22
V/L cartridges have a yellowish appearance, with a bare lead projectile seated on top. The
cartridges came supplied in clear plastic tubes.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.10 (See color insert.) Daisy V/L caseless cartridges. The bare lead projectile is seated
against the yellowish, granular propellant charge. The plastic tube is the container the car¬
tridges were shipped in. (Image from author's collection.)

Ignition Systems and Propellants

The ignition system is the means or method of initiating the discharge of the propellant
charge. The earliest firearms used various means to get a flame or sparks into the firearm
chamber where the propellant charge was contained. These means evolved rather quickly.
The simplest form was an aperture where flame could be directly applied to touch off the
propellant. Another approach was to use fuses or wicks that were lit using an open flame
such as a match or kindling, the fuse or wick acting as the conduit to get the fire to the
charge: the so-called matchlock ignition system.

With the furthering of mechanical developments, mechanisms such as the wheel lock
and the flintlock superseded the earlier systems. These systems permitted a mechanical
striking action, using a shock-sensitive material such as flint, to create sparks that would
ignite the propellant charge instead of the operator being required to ignite the system
manually, which meant having a ready source of flame at hand.

Alexander John Forsyth, a Scottish clergymen, is credited with the invention oiful¬
minate, achieved by subjecting metals to the action of fulmanic acid. The preferred metal
was mercury, and thus was born mercury fulminate and what was to become the first
primer, as modern terminology would describe it. The residuals of the fulminate reac¬
tion are an explosive material susceptible to detonation by impact or friction. Mercury
fulminate primers have long been discontinued, as the residues of the explosion are highly
corrosive to metals unless quickly and thoroughly cleaned. By the late nineteenth century
into the turn of the twentieth century, potassium chloride and antimony sulfide priming
compounds had replaced fulminate mercury; however, these compositions were also cor¬
rosive, which led to chamber and barrel erosion and pitting if the weapon was not promptly
cleaned. Lead styphnate-based primers had replaced these corrosive primers by the mid¬
twentieth century. However, corrosive primed cartridges, especially older military surplus
cartridges from around the world, can still be had that are primed using corrosive prim¬
ing compounds. Almost concurrently, a number of noncorrosive primer compounds were
used as well.

Ammunition Cartridges

Center-Fire Cartridges

The center-fire cartridge uses a small explosive device called a primer that is seated in a
pocket at the center of the cartridge casing’s base. The primer is struck by force acting upon
it by way of a firing pin or striker in the firearm that detonates the volatile priming com¬
pound. When the primer is detonated, the flame created by the detonation passes through
one or more “flash holes” in the interior of the casing and reaches the contained powder
charge, causing it to deflagrate (burn rapidly). There are several sizes of primer based on
the application, which is often dictated by the size of the cartridge: shot shell, Magnum
shot shell, small rifle, large rifle, small pistol, and large pistol are the classifications used.
The industry has been shifting priming chemistry toward formulations that have reduced
or completely eliminated heavy elements such as lead, antimony, and barium. This change
has been prompted by increased environmental concerns and health issues surrounding
repeated or prolonged lead exposure. These issues have coupled with an increased use of
indoor gun ranges, where leaded ammunition may be prohibited altogether. Such prim¬
ers tend to be conspicuously marked by abbreviations that indicate a lead-free or clean¬
burning primer compound.

Berden Priming

There are two center-fire primer designs currently in use: the Berden primer and the
Boxer primer. The Berden primer was the product of American Hiram Berden. On March
20, 1866, Berden was granted U.S. Patent 53,388, “Improvement in Priming Metallic
Cartridges” (Berden 1866). Berden indicated in his patent that he was interested in the safe
transportation of cartridges and the reuse of metallic cartridge casings. It is also interest¬
ing to note that Berden advocated the use of brass for cartridge casings. Furthermore,
Berden was concerned that the fulminating priming compounds used during that period
had a relatively short shelf life and would render the cartridge useless if stored for an exces¬
sive period of time. A short shelf life was not advisable for military ammunition because it
would prove impractical, if not impossible, to accumulate and maintain a strategic stock¬
pile in the event of conflict. Ammunition would have to be immediately manufactured on
an almost impossibly large scale in such a scenario, thereby creating an issue of national
security. Although this problem did not affect civilian consumers, a short shelf life for
commercial cartridges did present its own problems.

Physically, the Berden primer consists of a cup containing the priming compound.
When seated, the primer is met inside the casing by the anvil, a small appendage that
crosses the opening between the casing body and the primer pocket. In this design, the
anvil is not part of the primer, but rather part of the cartridge casing. On either side of the
anvil can be one, two, or three flash holes, through which the flame created by an ignited
primer will travel to the loaded powder charge. Berden’s design was an improvement over
other center-fire designs of the day such as the Benet or Bar Anvil, which did not use a
separate primer component but instead relied upon a priming “pellet,” which was seated
within an abscess at the casing base.

Despite Berden’s claim that his system was ideal for recycling fired casings, it is quite
the contrary. Berden primed cartridges are quite common, and many munitions produc¬
ers around the world utilize this design, as it tends to discourage collection of spent cas¬
ings with the intention of reloading them. Another reason that Berden priming is still in
widespread use is the cost; it is significantly cheaper to produce Berden primed cartridges

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

in comparison to Boxer primed cartridges (see the following section). Although the cost
differential may be measured in just fractions of a cent per unit, the macroeconomics of
cartridge production net a tremendous savings between the two designs. This is especially
true in military cartridges, where it would seem impractical to detail soldiers to scrounge
the battlefield for spent casings for the purposes of reloading them. That being said, this
was a major consideration of the U.S. Ordnance Corps for peacetime operations, allowing
costs to be contained by collecting and reusing brass. Thus it made sense to not use the
Berden system, instead opting for the Boxer system, which provides easier reloading of
fired casings. Even today, the Boxer system remains the preference in the United States.

Boxer Priming

Edward M. Boxer devised the ignition system that carries his name while working for the
Royal Arsenal in Woolrich, England. Boxer accomplished the same goal as Berden while
going at the same question from the opposite approach. The Boxer design, like the Berden
design, contained an anvil; however, the two are completely opposite. In the Boxer primer
design the anvil is a separate piece from the casing, whereas in the Berden primer design,
the anvil is part of the casing. Another difference is that rather than having one and up to
three flash holes, the Boxer primer uses a single, larger diameter flash hole. For all practi¬
cal purposes, whichever system a particular cartridge uses, the firearm does not know the
difference, and they are interchangeable: Both are still identified as center-fire cartridges.
American manufacturers tend to favor Boxer priming, which is somewhat ironic, given
the fact that the Boxer is of English origin. It is customary for cartridge manufacturers
to indicate on the specification sheet whether a particular cartridge is Boxer or Berden
primed, and this, in and of itself, can be used as a class characteristic for the purposes of
identification.

Rim-Fire Cartridges

Rim-fire cartridges do not have primers. Instead of a primer seated in the center of the car¬
tridge casing, the base of a rim-fire cartridge is a pressure-sensitive cap where the ignition
compound is spread around the periphery of the rim of the casing. Impact on any portion
of the surface will compress the charge and cause the ignition to occur. Modern rim-fire
cartridges tend to be smaller caliber, almost exclusively .17- or .22-class cartridges; how¬
ever, there are exceptions, such as the seldom-seen .22 Remington Jet and the .22 Hornet.
Historically speaking, rim-fire cartridges for military purposes appeared around the time
of the American Civil War, but their use was short-lived as self-contained cartridge technol¬
ogy rapidly advanced. The Swiss Vetterli, chambered in .41 rim fire, was probably the last
military rifle using rim-fire cartridges when it was removed from service in the early 1890s.

Black Powder

An effective propellant compound must be able to deflagrate rapidly without the introduc¬
tion of outside oxygen, generate a tremendous amount of gas relative to the quantity of
powder, and create heat. The earliest propellant used in firearms, called black powder, is a
simple chemical combination of sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter (potassium nitrate); how¬
ever, there are innumerable other recipes. The proportions of the reagents were subject to
variation.

The true history surrounding the advent of powder is a subject of some dispute. Some
sources attribute black powder as a development of ancient China that was subsequently

Ammunition Cartridges

brought to the West by traders over the centuries. Hamilton (1916, 10) wrote that “as far as
it can be ascertained, it was first produced in England in the thirteenth century.” Around
1242, the formula may have been deduced or reformulated, perhaps surreptitiously, by
Franciscan friar Roger Bacon (1214-1294 CE). Bacon is known to have dabbled in alchemy,
and the attempt to either formulate or break down the existing formula may have been part
of his work. Hamilton (1916, 10) also credits a German monk named Berthold Schwarz
with being an original inventor of black powder, although it may have been a simultaneous
yet independent invention between the two men. Other claims include the involvement of
Archimedes (287-212 BCE), who is also alleged to have developed black powder, perhaps
independently of the Far East. It is entirely possible that the development occurred concur¬
rently in various parts of the world, with variations in the formulas.

While universally known as black powder, the substance can range in color from dark
black, brown, or gray, to metallic silver. Black powder is considered a low explosive in that it
does not explode but rather deflagrates. Physically, black powder grains vary in appearance
and can vary in size from a very fine powder to relatively large chunks. Black powder can
often be discriminated from smokeless powder because black powder is generally irregular
in shape but of uniform size. The size of the powder flakes directly affects the burn rate,
with smaller flakes burning faster than larger ones. When exposed to moisture, black pow¬
der will not burn; however, if it is allowed to dry, it will become usable again. Hence, the
concept of having an encased powder charge that was reasonably resistant to the elements
was a logical progression in firearms technology.

Black powder firearms predated self-contained cartridge-based firearms. The intro¬
duction of self-contained cartridges that included powder and a projectile did not ren¬
der black powder obsolete. These first self-contained cartridges used black powder as the
propellant. This permitted many firearms of the era to be retrofitted to fire self-contained
cartridges; however, due to the differential in energetic potential between black powder
and smokeless powder, these retrofits tended to be relatively short-lived and were rap¬
idly replaced by newer armaments designed specifically to handle self-contained smoke¬
less powder-based munitions. Despite this advancement, black powder-based cartridges
remained sufficiently popular to be commercially viable to manufacture until the onset of
World War II. Firearms produced in the era between the introduction of smokeless powder
and until the 1940s will often be marked “smokeless powder” to indicate that the firearm
was suitable for use with smokeless powder-loaded cartridges.

Black powder does not have nearly the energetic potential of smokeless powder, but it
remains a dangerous substance. The relative availability and seemingly innocuous nature
of black powder makes it a prime candidate for use in improvised explosive devices such
as pipe bombs. It is often erroneously thought that powder used in pyrotechnics is a form
of gunpowder, but quite the contrary is true. Standard pyrotechnic powder is generically
called flash powder, although numerous formulas are mixed and used. Brown powder is
akin to black powder, save for a slower rate of deflagration, and is archaic.

Smokeless Powder

Smokeless powder, like black powder, is also a low explosive; thus it deflagrates rather than
detonates. Smokeless powder is also called gunpowder and is considerably more powerful
than black powder. Deflagrating black powder expands to some 250-300 times its original
volume; smokeless powder can expand 900 to 1,000 times its original volume and generate
pressures in excess of 44,000 pounds per square inch.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Modern gunpowder compounds are single-, double-, or triple-based compositions; how¬
ever, triple-based powder formulas are not seen in small-arms applications. A single-base
composition contains nitrocellulose as the main ingredient, which is dissolved in alcohol
to form a sticky byproduct often called colloid. The colloid is cut to the desired size, and the
alcohol is then allowed to evaporate, leaving a hard granular powder. Double-base composi¬
tions are made by dissolving gun cotton in nitroglycerin. Coatings and other nonexplosive
constituents may be added to the basic powder formula to control the powder burn rate, and
other additives may be mixed to achieve a desired effect such as flash reduction. Smokeless
powder has a clearly defined shape and is of uniform size in a particular application, although
the size and shape are part of the engineering process when a cartridge is developed.

Smokeless powder has been the subject of continuous refinement and experimenta¬
tion since its inception and into modern times. The actual invention of smokeless gun¬
powder has been attributed by Hamilton (1916) to a German chemist named Christian
Friedrich Schoenbein, and is said to have taken place in 1845-1846 when he discovered
gun cotton. In correspondence dated August 25, 1846, to his colleague Michael Faraday,
an English chemist, Schoenbein described his “explosive cotton” and was apparently
already cognizent of its potential, characterizing it as a “dangerous rival to gunpowder”
(Kahlbaum and Darbishire 1899). From the context of the letter, it is apparent that he
was not debuting the development of gun cotton, as it had already been subjected to sig¬
nificant testing by the time the correspondence was written. Gun cotton was not usable
in that form because of its erratic behavior, and it had to be processed. The discovery
of gun cotton was not the only significant achievement in Schoenbein’s life. He also
discovered ozone (Schoenbein spelled it as “ozon”) and invented what is now called the
fuel cell.

Since the introductions of smokeless powder and gun cotton, they both have been
subjected to a great deal of refinement and reegineering. Nitroglycerine followed soon
thereafter, developed by Ascanio Sobrero, an Italian chemist. Noted explosives industrial¬
ist Alfred Nobel used nitroglycerine to produce dynamite, but he also mixed nitroglycerine
with nitrocellulose to produce his proprietary smokeless propellent called ballistite, which
was patented in 1887.

Smokeless powder is not truly smokeless, as it does produce visible smoke when deto¬
nated; however, it is smokeless in the sense that it produces considerably less smoke than
black powder as a by-product. Aside from the increased power of smokeless powder in
contrast to black powder, it is exactly like black powder in many respects. It comes in vari¬
ous shapes and sizes, generally flake, ball, or cylindrical. Also like black powder, there are
various recipes for making smokeless powder, with most recipes focusing on the burn rate.
As smokeless powder is considerably more powerful than black powder, confusing the two
will certainly result in an unfortunate accident.

In the last 20 years, there has been serious effort made to reformulate smokeless powder
to reduce or eliminate the use of lead and other heavy elements, and many manufacturers
have discarded the traditional powder formulations in favor of these newer formulas. Newer
gunpowder formulations have coincided with new primer compounds that reduce or com¬
pletely eliminate the presence of heavy elements such as lead. In England, smokeless powder

Gun cotton is made by treating cotton, wood pulp, plant fibers, or other cellulosic materials with sulfu¬
ric and nitric acids; it is also called nitrocellulose.

Ammunition Cartridges

was called cordite, presumably because the powder was rolled into strings resembling cords
and cut to the desired length. Cordite was one of the earliest smokeless powder formulations.

Lesmoke Powder

All varieties of powders have always been subject to proprietary blends manufactured
by powder makers, and they have gone under innumerable trade names. The DuPont
Company, well known today as a manufacturer of a wide variety of goods from countertops
to communications, was founded as a powder manufacturer in 1802. “In 1857 Lammont
du Pont developed a new method of black powder manufacture which substituted South
American sodium nitrate for the more expensive, British controlled potassium nitrate”
(DuPont 2011). This product, called B blasting powder, “was the first notable change in
black powder composition in over 600 years” (DuPont 2011). DuPont also produced a now-
archaic hybrid powder called Lesmoke. This powder formulation was a combination of
gun cotton and black powder, and likely contained some other ingredients to separate it
from other contemporary products by other firms and avoid the liabilities of infringing on
intellectual property. Lesmoke is reported to have had the appearance of fine gray sand.
References dating back to the early twentieth century state that self-contained cartridges
were loaded commercially with Lesmoke powder.

Action Time

The action time is the time interval between the ignition of the primer, propellant burn,
and the projectile exiting the barrel. In modern self-contained cartridge systems, the action
time is practically instantaneous. Delayed action times are called hang fires and have sev¬
eral possible causations, including defective primer; ammunition that has been exposed
to solvents, oils, and the environment; and irregularities in the powder charge. When the
trigger is pressed and there is no gunshot on a loaded firearm, the recommended practice is
to wait at least 30-60 seconds before attempting to clear the chamber to allow the time for
a potentially slow-burning cartridge to complete the reaction. Muzzle discipline is critical
when a hang fire occurs because of the possibility that the firearm could discharge at any
moment without warning. Archaic ignition systems have a delayed action time relative to
self-contained cartridge arms.

Electric Priming

Electric priming is an alternative to traditional percussion-detonated cartridges, but it has
never achieved widespread use outside of military circles and a handful of commercial
oddities. Electrically primed cartridges use a high-intensity electrical arc, rather than per¬
cussion by mechanical means, to detonate the primer. Electrically primed cartridges are
used in high-rate-of-fire weapons such as the 7.62x51mm M-134 “mini-gun” and M-61
20mm Vulcan cannon.

It is thought that Smith & Wesson experimented with electric priming in the late 1960s
as an alternative technology to advance their Model 76 submachine gun; however, the idea
apparently never got beyond testing. Unfortunately for Smith & Wesson, the Model 76 was
not as commercially successful as had been hoped. Although the design was sound enough,
borrowing heavily from the Swedish K—known by many as the Karl Gustav—Smith &
Wesson was unable to find a market in the world’s militaries, and it appears that most
of the 76s went to American law enforcement agencies, while others passed into private
hands. In the American machine gun market, the Model 76 is one of the more common

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

submachine guns that can be found, ironically many of them bearing the property mark¬
ings of their former owners—law enforcement agencies.

Voere, an Austrian gun maker, markets a 5.7mm caseless cartridge. The cartridge is
not only unique in that it is a caseless* cartridge, but it also is electrically primed, having no
percussion primer but, instead, a semiconductor that is attached to a booster charge. The
rifle chambered for this cartridge, the Model VEC91, uses two 15-volt batteries instead of
having a traditional mechanical firing apparatus. The manufacturer reports that the 3.6-
gram (approximately 55 grain) 5.7mm projectile travels at approximately 930 m/s (3051
ft/s). Given these figures, such performance is on par with other comparable, traditionally
constructed cartridges. The significant difference is the high cost of the rifle and ammuni¬
tion in contrast to conventional arms and ammunition.

In 2000, Remington Arms started marketing a family of electrically primed cartridges
called EtronX. Remington selected the Model 700 bolt-action rifle to serve as the platform
for the new technology, and the 700 was the only model manufactured to use EtronX. The
only significant differences between a conventional 700 rifle and the EtronX version was
a battery compartment and an LED that indicated the weapon’s condition and acted as a
form of safety. Various calibers were offered, including .22-250, .243, and .220 Swift. The
concept was not successful, and Remington discontinued the product within a few years.
EtronX ammunition is still available.

Projectiles

Most cartridge platforms are flexible and are readily reengineered to suit specific market
needs and purposes. In the design and manufacturing process, the selection of materials,
design characteristics, and powder charge are combined to produce a cartridge to maxi¬
mize results for the intended use. This is not to say that any given projectile will meet the
performance expectations placed upon it. Over the course of modern cartridge develop¬
ment, various materials have been explored to either accomplish a specific objective or to
improve some measure of projectile and, hence, cartridge performance. Projectiles can be
described as having three effects when they become terminal, i.e., when they impact the
target: nonexpansion, controlled expansion, and fragmentation. Any of these effects can
be engineered into the projectile design. However, design intent does not necessarily imply
that the desired result will be realized. The pursuit of better projectiles has led to the diver¬
sity of designs and materials that exist today.

Commonly Used Abbreviations to Identify Projectile Styles

For the purposes of packaging, advertising, and identification, ammunition manufactur¬
ers have adopted universally recognized abbreviations to sort, at least by class, the type of
projectile loaded in a particular cartridge. Most of the abbreviations are relatively broad
in scope, but others are proprietary to the projectile design that they represent. There are
numerous styles or shapes of projectiles. The abbreviations that are used to identify the
projectile shape are largely universal, save for proprietary projectiles that are developed by
a company. Table 2.3 shows the common abbreviations for ammunition.

A caseless cartridge is one wherein the casing itself comprises the powder charge.

Ammunition Cartridges

Table 2.3 Common Ammunition Cartridge Abbreviations

A-BOND

Accubond

MATCH

Match Grade cartridge

Armor Piercing

OTM

Open Tip Match

Boat Tail

Lead

BND

Bonded

PART

Partitioned projectile

BDD

Banded

PLF

Plated Lead Free

BPA

Blank Plastic Bullet

PROOF

Proof loaded cartridge

Ballistic Silver Tip

Round Nose

B-TIP

Ballistic Tip

RNFP

Round Nose Flat Base

BTHP

Boat Tail Hollow Point

RNSWC

Round Nose Semi Wad Cutter

BTSP

Boat Tail Soft Point

RPPB

Round Point Plastic Bullet

Cone Point

SBT

Spitzer Boat Tail

DEWC

Double End Wad Cutter

SCHP

Solid Copper Hollow Point

Flat Base

Soft Lead

FMC

Full Metal Case

SLD

Solid

FMJ

Full Metal Jacket

SJHP

Semi Jacketed Hollow Point

FMJBT

Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail

Semi Jacketed

FMJSWC

Full Metal Jacket Semi-Wad Cutter

SMP

Semi Point

Flat Nose

Soft Point or Spire Point

Flat Point

SPHJ

Soft Point Heavy Jacket Tail

GDHP

Gold Dot Hollow Point

Semi Spitzer

Hollow Point

SSP

Single Shot Pistol

HPBT

Hollow Point Boat Tail

STHP

Silver Tip Hollow Point

HSP

Hollow Soft Point

SPT

Spitzer

JHP

Jacketed Hollow Point

SWC

Semi Wad Cutter

JRN

Jacketed Round Nose

Truncated Cone

JSP

Jacketed Soft Point

TMJ

Total Metal Jacket

JSWC

Jacketed Semi Wad Cutter

TNHP

Truncated Nose Hollow Point

Lead

Wad Cutter

LRN

Lead Round Nose

WTP

Wide Taper Point

LWC

Lead Wad Cutter

Cannelures

A feature of many, but not all, projectiles is the cannelure, which is the groove that runs
the circumference of a projectile. Some projectiles may have two cannelures. The cann¬
elure can be knurled or smooth in appearance. The cannelure can serve two purposes, the
first being to provide a place to set a lubricant. Cannelures are often referred to as “grease
grooves” just for this reason. The second reason for a cannelure is to provide the loca¬
tion on the projectile where it will be seated in the casing neck. The cannelure runs the
circumference of the projectile and may be visible, partially visible at the casing neck, or
completely invisible if the projectile is seated so that the cannelure is within the casing.

Ball Projectiles and Variations

The ball or solid projectiles are simply projectiles constructed of a solid mass of material
that have been cast or formed into a particular shape, such as that depicted in Figure 2.11.
The term ball does not indicate that the projectile is of a round or ball shape. Ball or solid
ammunition may or may not be jacketed or coated with a gilding material. While all of

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.11 A 9mm 115-grain copper-jacketed ball projectile. (Image courtesy of Hornady
Manufacturing.)

these are considered to be ball ammunition because they have the same class characteris¬
tics, there are variations that have design features intended to enhance their performance.
All ball ammunition, whether by design or not, has the possibility of fragmentation when
striking an object. The disintegration of the projectile may be partial or total, depending
upon the composition of the target, impact velocity, and other variables that are situation
specific. If jacketed, portions of the jacket may fragment and scatter about randomly, or
the jacket may completely separate from the main projectile mass, either as one piece or
in smaller pieces. Upon impact, ball projectiles may deform while not shedding projectile
material or jacketing; such deformation may be minimal or to such an extent that it may
render the projectile completely useless for comparison studies.

Ball ammunition is designed to be nonexpansive in the context of terminal ballistics,
regardless of how the projectile behaves upon impact. One variation of ball ammunition
with a performance enhancement built into the design is th e penetrator, which is essentially
a projectile contained within a projectile. The penetrators are made of various materials and
are encapsulated by the lead mass and jacketing material. In most cases, the penetrators are
denser than the lead and are designed to expel themselves out of the projectile upon impact
with an object. The penetrator continues along the trajectory, perhaps with some deviation
from the last indicated trajectory that the round was fired upon. NATO specification SS109
projectiles (5.56x45mm) are one such example. This projectile contains a penetrator that
is designed (a) to penetrate intermediate barriers such as cinder blocks, glass, and light
armor plating and (b) to enhance the injury potential in “soft” targets. The SS109 projectile
is formally identified as “heavy ball,” weighs 62 grains, and maybe identified by a green tip.
However, the green tip should not be solely relied upon to identify a 5.56x45mm cartridge
as a heavy ball, as some cartridges of this specification are not so identified. British M855
ammunition produced by the Royal Ordnance Factory at Radway Green lacks the color
coding, as does M855 ammunition produced by Israeli Military Industries, and even U.S.
commercial market ammunition manufactured to M855 specification, so the presence or
absence of the green tip cannot be relied upon to be definitive for identification purposes.
M855 cartridges are produced around the world by many manufacturers. The M855 was
designated heavy ball because it replaced the M193 cartridge, loaded with the 56-grain ball
projectile. See Figure 2.12.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.12 (See color insert.) Example of 5.56x45mm M855 "Green Tip" cartridges on strip¬
per clips. Note the annealed casing neck. (U.S. Marine Corps image,- photographer Cpl. Lydia
M. Davey, USMC.)

Figure 2.13 Chinese 7.62x39mm projectile and cylindrically shaped mild-steel penetrator.
(Image from author's collection.)

Certain examples of Chinese-produced 7.62x39mm and 7.62x54mmR ammunition
contain a cylindrically shaped penetrator constructed of mild steel. The use of mild-steel
cores is more likely to be attributed to economic rather than traumatic purposes. A Chinese-
sourced 7.62x39mm mild-steel core projectile is shown in Figure 2.13. The author’s expe¬
rience suggests that this penetrator-type projectile behaves marginally against building
materials and sheet metal.

The M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round (EPR) is the intended replacement for the
M855 heavy ball cartridge. The M855A1 is reported to have been systematically engineered
to meet a variety of specifications intended to create an improved cartridge over the current
M855 cartridge. It is claimed that the cartridge is even more effective than the 7.62x51mm
M80 cartridge. The projectile itself is reported to be more accurate and to offer improved
performance against both “hard” and “soft” targets, as compared to the M855, while offer¬
ing a more environmentally sensitive product in terms of production and in residuals left

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.14 (See color insert.) The 5.56x45mm M855A1 EPR. Note the gap between the tip
and projectile body and the cannelure on the projectile itself. (U.S. Army image; photographer
Todd Mozes.)

after use. The M855A1 is a completely lead-free design, and while the M855A1 retains the
penetrator design, it has been redesigned to resemble an arrowhead instead of a cylindri¬
cal shape. The cartridge features a different propellant formula to reduce muzzle flash and
increase the projectile velocity. The cartridge is identified by its bronze-colored tip and
may feature a subtly visible gap between the tip and the projectile (see Figure 2.14). The
U.S. Army began general issue of the M855A1 in June 2010. ATK reported that it received
an order from the U.S. Army for “nearly 300 million rounds of the new M855A1 EPR”
after completing an initial order of “20 million rounds of M855A1, which were delivered
to the troops in Afghanistan earlier this year” (Alliant Techsystems 2010b). The technol¬
ogy embodied in the M855A1 looks to be infused into the new 5.56x45mm lead-free tracer
cartridge, tentatively identified as the M856A1, as well as the M995 armor-piercing car¬
tridge. If the M855A1 proves to be a viable cartridge platform in application, it will likely
serve as the inspiration for a new generation of cartridges that draw upon the technology
pioneered in it. The 7.62x51mm M80 is reported to be in the process of a similar redesign,
also incorporating lead-free components. A seemingly likely scenario is that it will mimic
the M855A1 in all respects except in dimensions.

Ball projectiles can be of any shape—round nose, pointed, truncated nose, tapered, etc.
For example, the cartridges depicted in Figure 2.15 are U.S. military M41 .38 Special ball
cartridges, which have a round nose. A significant improvement in ball projectile design,
known as the spitzer, was first developed in France and used in the 8mm Lebel cartridge
around the turn of the twentieth century. Germany took off on the design shortly there¬
after, calling their version of it the “spitzer,” and the name stuck. Nearly every nation fol¬
lowed, abandoning the round-nose projectiles then in use in favor of the pointed, slender
spitzer projectile. The round-nose projectile was considered more appropriate for then-
contemporary rifle designs, many of which used a tubular magazine where the projectile
tip bumped into the primer of the cartridge loaded ahead of it. Round-nose projectiles
were considered to be less likely to cause an inadvertent detonation when compared to
pointed-nose projectiles. As rifle designs evolved and ammunition was fed from internal
or detachable box-style magazines, the pointed-nose projectile was no longer considered
an impediment. Ironically, many full-sized, full-powered rifle cartridges developed at the
turn of the nineteenth to the twentieth century that are still in use have retained the basic
round-nose design.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.15 Vintage U.S. military M41 .38 Special cartridges. The warning on the box
indicates that this ammunition is strictly for military purposes; however it is nothing more
than ball .38 ammunition. (Image from author’s collection.)

The spitzer projectile is identified by its pointed nose, tapered shape, and defined
waistline. The taper expands from the pointed nose to the waist. In some cases, a spitzer
will have a flat base, whereas other spitzer projectiles taper down to the base. The actual
length of the waist can be long or short, relative to the projectile length. Spitzer projectiles
with the tapered base may also be called a boat tail, a reference to the classic speedboat hull
design. The boat-tail projectile is significantly longer than flat-based varieties. All modern
military rifle cartridges are of spitzer or boat-tail design, and a great many civilian rifle
cartridges are as well.

The British interpretation of the spitzer projectile for their standard .303 rifle car¬
tridge was designated the Mark VII. Previous .303 cartridges, each designated by the Mark
nomenclature, were round nose. The Mark VII was not a boat-tail-shaped spitzer but,
rather, had a flat base. A significant difference between the British Mark VII and other
contemporary spitzer-type projectiles was that it had a hollowed cavity behind the nose.
To avoid the appearance of using a hollow-point projectile, which is prohibited in armed
conflict by the Hague Convention, the projectile had a lightweight filler material contained
within the cavity. There was also no abscess at the tip communicating the exterior of the
projectile to the cavity. The purpose was to shift the center of gravity toward the back of
the projectile, which weighed more than the front, as the bulk of the mass was behind the
center of the projectile. When the projectile impacted a target, it would cause the projectile
to yaw, thereby, in theory, increasing the Mark VII’s wounding potential. British munitions
producers marked the cartridge casing base with Arabic or Roman numerals to indicate
what projectile was loaded; hence, VII or 7 would indicate that a Mark VII projectile was
seated. Some of these casings may also be marked with a z, indicating the use of smokeless
powder, so that they would not be confused with old-stock .303 cartridges loaded with
black powder.

Apparently, there was enough faith placed in this design that the Soviets copied it
when they developed the 5.45x39mm M74. This cartridge was likely inspired by analyz¬
ing the performance of the U.S. 5.56x45mm cartridge used during the Vietnam War. The
5.45x39mm 5N7 cartridge is a boat-tail projectile having a full-metal gilded jacket. Like
the Mark VII, it has a hollow-cavity nose. A thin layer of lead covers an unhardened steel

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.16 The FN 5.7x28mm (top), and the H&.K 4.6x30mm (bottom) are very small, high-
velocity cartridges intended for use with handguns and submachine guns. (Image from author's
collection.)

core, and there is a small lead plug crimped in place at the base of the projectile. This bias
shifts the center of gravity to the back, making the 5N7 susceptible to yaw and deformity
when it impacts a target. The 5.45x39mm M74 is a very long, slender projectile, with quite
a bit of the projectile projecting from the casing. Although the Soviet M43 7.62x39mm is
represented as the same casing length, the M74 is actually just a millimeter longer, as the
M74 is 39.37 mm in length over the M43’s 38.60 mm. The M855A1 is reported to not be
yaw dependent, “causing the same effects when striking its target, regardless of the angle
of yaw” (Woods 2010).

By and large, handgun-caliber cartridges do not employ spitzer-type projectiles, but this
should not be interpreted to mean that they are not used. The FN 5.7x28mm and the H&K
4.6x30mm both can use spitzer projectiles, and there are other loadings that also can use a
spitzer projectile (see Figure 2.16). Older model semiautomatic handguns in particular have
tended to be very susceptible to jamming when a cartridge loaded with anything other than
a round-nose projectile was used. This is a direct function of the feed-ramp design of the
firearm in question. Historically, semiautomatic handguns were designed to cycle ball car¬
tridges, and older designs can be found with failure-to-feed malfunctions when truncated-
nose or other style projectiles are used, as they tend to hang up at the feed ramp or the breech.
Newer handgun designs, as a rule, are not susceptible to feed-ramp issues, as they have been
engineered to cycle various projectile varieties, especially hollow-point-type projectiles that
tend to have truncated noses. The projectile design is of no consequence to the revolver, inso¬
much as the cartridge being used is suitable for use with the revolver in question.

Controlled-Expansion Projectiles

The term hollow point is a colloquial term used to describe a projectile that is more formally
defined as a controlled-expansion projectile. These projectiles get their name from their most
distinctive characteristic: a cavity or abscess in the projectile nose that is readily apparent.
This particular class of projectile is engineered to expand from its original diameter to per¬
haps twice or even three times the original diameter. Hollow points are marketed toward
law enforcement, security providers, and private citizens seeking personal defense or hunt¬
ing ammunition. In accordance with the 1899 Hague Convention, military forces that abide
by the protocol are prohibited from using hollow-point-type projectiles in combat.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.17 Magtech First Defense controlled-expansion projectiles. The projectile is con¬
structed of solid copper, thus eliminating the possibility of the jacket separating from the pro¬
jectile. (Image courtesy of Magtech Ammunition.)

The hollow point is still sometimes erroneously called a dum dum, an archaic term
that dates back to the nineteenth century. A false premise of hollow-point projectiles is
that they are often thought of as exploding bullets. This premise probably originates from
the fragmentation effect that could occur in some projectiles after striking a target, even if
the fragmentation effect was not intended or engineered into the projectile design. Hollow-
point projectiles are not the only projectile variety susceptible to fragmentation when
impacting a target; ball-type projectiles are also susceptible to this behavior. The designed
purpose of the hollow point is to allow the projectile to expand upon impacting a target.
This expansion is caused by the outer edge of the projectile nose around the ogive* folding
open and to the rear when meeting the resistance of the target medium. Figure 2.17 dem¬
onstrates an ideal fully controlled expansion. Figure 2.18 depicts the generic anatomy of a
controlled-expansion (hollow point) projectile. Figure 2.19, although depicting a different
brand than those in Figure 2.17, demonstrates that the hollow point is a class characteristic
of like-designed projectiles and basically is the same regardless of brand or manufacturer.

When a hollow point expands, it has two effects: The first is to increase the size of the
temporal and permanent wound cavities in the target, thus increasing the incapacitating or
lethal potential of the projectile. The second effect is that because the projectile impact surface
has been increased, often more than doubled from the original diameter, there is a greater
surface area to fully transfer the kinetic energy from the projectile into the target, thus reduc¬
ing the risk of overpenetration and keeping the projectile within the target. The appearance
of an ideally expanded hollow point is that of a star. Most major munitions manufacturers
produce a hollow-point-type projectile and market their particular products under different
trade names, such as Speer Gold Dot, Winchester Silver Tip and the Supreme Elite PDX1,
Federal Hyrda-Shok, Hornady TAP, Nosier Accubond, and the Barnes VOR-TX line (which
can be loaded with the Barnes TSX, Tipped TSX, and TSX FN projectiles). Capitalizing on
the zombie phenomenon, Hornady Manufacturing announced in October 2011 a new line
of ammunition specifically designed to kills zombies (see Figure 2.20). In spite of the tongue
in cheek spirit of the packaging and marketing, Zombie Max projectiles are of the controlled
expansion variety, that are at least as likely to be equally effective on the living as the undead.
Nevertheless, all of these are still hollow points by definition and class characteristics.

The ogive is the rounded, tapered, leading end of the projectile, sometimes called the nose.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.18 (See color insert.) A cutaway image of the Hornady Critical Defense cartridge.
(Image courtesy of Hornady Manufacturing.)

Figure 2.19 Hornady 9x19mm Critical Duty projectile that has passed through heavy cloth¬
ing. The cartridge was a +P load. (Image courtesy of Hornady Manufacturing.)

The major handicap of hollow-point-type projectiles has been their ability to prop¬
erly expand and remain as a unified, coherent projectile while the expansion is occurring.
Projectile fragmentation, failure to expand, inconsistent expansion, and jacket separation
have been performance issues that affect the final result achieved when using hollow-
point projectiles. A variation of the hollow-point projectile is one that is partitioned or
segmented. This variety of hollow points has one or more additional hollowed partitions
within the projectile. Demonstrated examples of partitioned hollow points suggest that
controlled expansion can nearly flatten the projectile. The Nosier Partition projectile is an
example of such a design.

A recent entrant into the market from Federal Cartridge is the Guard Dog line. The
Guard Dog cartridge, currently available in 9x19mm, .40 S&W, and .45 ACP blurs the line

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.20 (See color insert.) The pop culture phenomenon of a world taken over by zombies
prompted Hornady to release a line of "zombie killing" ammunition, a rather jocular bit of
marketing. (Image courtesy of Hornady Manufacturing.)

between ball and controlled-expansion projectiles. Overtly, the projectile appears as a ball
type, lacking the abscessed nose that is traditionally associated with the controlled-expan-
sion-class projectiles. Federal Cartridge states on its website that the Guard Dog is not a
hollow point, although it behaves as one, expanding upon target impact. A distinctive fea¬
ture of the Guard Dog is a series of blue fillers in the projectile tip. These fillers are not vis¬
ible to the eye before the projectile is expended, but they are revealed after the projectile has
expanded. It would appear that there are cuts or serrations within the projectile that cause
it to petal open, much like a traditional hollow point, yet eliminate the need for an open¬
ing at the tip. This cartridge could prove to be especially popular in venues that prohibit
controlled-expansion hollow-point projectiles, as this does not appear to meet the requisite
design features of such. A second unique feature of this line is that the three currently rep¬
resented calibers use projectiles that are of reduced mass by comparison to other projectiles
of those caliber classes. The 9x19mm projectile weighs a mere 105 grains; the .40 weighs 135
grains, and the .45 ACP weighs 165 grains (Federal Premium Ammunition 2011).

Open-Tip Match

The Open-Tip Match (OTM), is a class of projectile that has been subject to debate as to
whether or not it can be qualified or defined as a hollow-point-type projectile. The OTM
differs from a traditional hollow point in appearance. The OTM projectile has a very nar¬
row, shallow opening at the projectile tip. There are no serrations, or petal cuts, as found
in typical hollow-point projectiles. OTM projectiles are associated with traditional rifle
calibers such as 5.56x45mm or .308 (7.62x51mm Winchester), among others. The appar¬
ent design purpose of the OTM-type projectile is to enhance long-range accuracy through
certain characteristics specifically engineered into the design, not to provide for a capacity
to expand in a terminal ballistic situation.

A memorandum dated October 12,1990, written by U.S. Marine Corps Col. W. Hayes
Parks, chief of the Judge Advocate General’s International Law Branch, addressed to the
commander of the U.S. Army Special Operations Command, discussed the legalities of
using OTM ammunition in the conduct of war. The memorandum first clarified the sig¬
nificance of the open tip.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

The purpose of the small, shallow aperture in the MatchKing* is to provide a bullet design
offering maximum accuracy at very long ranges, rolling the jacket of the bullet around its
core from base to tip; standard military bullets and other match bullets roll the jacket around
its core from tip to base, leaving an exposed lead core at its base. Design purpose of the
MatchKing was not to produce a bullet that would expand or flatten easily on impact with
the human body, or otherwise cause wounds greater than those caused by standard military
small arms ammunition. (Parks 1990)

The author opined on the question of military application of such a projectile:

The purpose of the 7.62mm “open-tip” MatchKing bullet is to provide maximum accu¬
racy at very long range. Like most 5.56mm and 7.62mm military ball bullets, it may frag¬
ment upon striking its target, although the probability of its fragmentation is not as great
as some military ball bullets currently in use by some nations. Bullet fragmentation is
not a design characteristic, however, nor a purpose for use of the MatchKing by United
States Army snipers. Wounds caused by MatchKing ammunition are similar to those
caused by a fully jacketed military ball bullet, which is legal under the law of war, when
compared at the same ranges and under the same conditions. The military necessity for
its use—its ability to offer maximum accuracy at very long ranges—is complemented by
the high degree of discriminate fire it offers in the hands of a trained sniper. It not only
meets, but exceeds, the law of war obligations of the United States for use in combat.
(Parks 1990)

In September 2006, ATK was awarded a development contract for enhanced car¬
tridges in 7.62x51mm and 5.56x45mm, resulting in the creation of the MK 318 MOD 0
(5.56x45mm) (Figure 2.21) and the MK 319 MOD 0 (7.62x51mm) (Figure 2.22). Both pro¬
jectile types are open-tip match. The MK 318 projectile has a mass of 62 grains, and the MK
319 projectile has a mass of 130 grains.

The MK 318 MOD 0 and MK 319 MOD 0 cartridge designs are a variation of the Federal
Trophy Bonded Bear Claw round developed by Federal Cartridge for large game hunting.
The Trophy Bonded Bear is a commercial item that can be found in a number of commercial
publications such as Cabelas. The design for these rounds have been modified to meet all
law and military requirements as required while meeting all performance Key Performance
Parameters (KPPs). (Department of the Navy Crane Division 2009)

The front of these projectiles is designed to defeat intermediate barriers, while the base,
which is solid copper, is designed to act as a penetrator. This style of projectile has been
termed to be barrier blind because of the guiding design philosophy, which is to effectively
engage a target through intermediate barriers such as automotive glass, doors, and so forth
(Marsh, Stoll, and Leis 2009). The U.S. Marine Corps is reported to have adopted the MK
318 and discontinued the use of the standard M855 cartridge (Lamothe 2010b). The Marine
Corps is also reported to be testing the M855A1 cartridge, but remains skeptical in con¬
trast to the MK 318 (Lamothe 2010a). “The MK 318 and MK 319 were developed in con¬
junction with the Special Operation Forces Combat Assault Rifle (SCAR)” (Department
of the Navy Crane Division 2009). Federal Cartridge had already developed the MK 316

The MatchKing is a specific projectile manufactured by Sierra Bullets. The cartridge subject of the mem¬
orandum is the Gold Medal Match, manufactured by Federal Cartridge using the MatchKing projectile.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.21 The 5.56x45mm Ball, Carbine, Barrier MK 318 MOD 0 cartridge. Note cannelures
and classic boat tail or spitzer shape. (U.S. Navy image.)

Figure 2.22 The 7.62x51mm Ball, Carbine, Barrier MK 319 MOD 0 cartridge. Note the flat pro¬
jectile base. Compare the differences between this cartridge and Figure 2.21. (U.S. Navy image.)

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

(Special Ball, Long Range) for the U.S. Navy. The MK 316 is a 7.62x51mm cartridge loaded
with the 175-grain Sierra MatchKing OTM projectile.

The MK 262 MOD 0 is another open-tip match projectile developed at the request of
the U.S. military. Officially, the cartridge was designated the Special Ball, Long Range, MK
262 MOD 0. The projectile is significantly heavier than that used in the M855, weighing
77 grains versus 62 grains. The cartridge was sole-sourced to Black Hills Ammunition for
manufacture; however, the projectile is the Sierra MatchKing OTM. The MK 262 MOD 1
is the same in all respects, save for the addition of a cannelure in the projectile. Although
the cartridge will function in any firearm chambered for 5.56x45mm, it was specifically
intended for use in the Mark 12 Special Purpose Rifle (Buxton and Marsh 2003). The Mark
12 SPR is a derivative of the basic M16 rifle, with various updates and modifications.

Wad Cutter and Semi-Wad Cutter

A wad cutter is a cylindrically shaped projectile that has a flat nose. The appearance of a
wad cutter is similar to that of a segmented cylinder, and most wad cutters have several
cannelures. Wad cutters can be jacketed or unjacketed. The purpose of a wad cutter is to
cut clean, round holes in paper for target shooting, making the target easier to count. Wad
cutters are generally bare lead, but jacketed versions have been made as well. Outwardly,
a cartridge loaded with a wad-cutter projectile appears to have no projectile seated at all,
much like a blank, as the projectile is seated such that the front of the projectile sits flush
with the opening of the casing neck. Although intended for target use, wad cutters can
certainly cause lethal injury.

A semi-wad cutter is similar in appearance and description to the wad cutter with the
exception of a truncated nose. Like wad cutters, their primary application is for shoot¬
ing paper targets and creating a clean hole in the paper for scoring. The majority of wad
cutters that were ever manufactured were produced in calibers popular with competition
shooters, primarily in the .38 and .45 class. To see a wad cutter or semi-wad cutter in other
calibers would be unusual but cannot be ruled out. Wad-cutter hollow points are hybrids
that combine the physical shape of a wad cutter but have the abscessed-nose characteristic
of a hollow-point-type projectile.

Armor Piercing

Armor-piercing ammunition is designed to perform exactly as the name states: It is
designed to overcome armor of a given specification. Most venues qualify a cartridge as
being armor piercing by the material that constitutes the projectile. Materials such as tung¬
sten carbide, hardened steel, iron, brass, bronze, beryllium, copper, and even depleted ura¬
nium have been or are currently used to construct armor-piercing projectiles.

Dedicated armor-piercing (AP) cartridges should not be confused with non-AP car¬
tridges that are, in fact, capable of defeating certain types of armor by virtue of other fac¬
tors such as projectile mass coupled with velocity, or simply by the velocity of the projectile
alone. Hollow-point projectiles are typically unable to penetrate armor because their engi¬
neered expansion occurs upon impact with the hardened surface, whereas ball-type projec¬
tiles may be more likely to pierce or penetrate armor, relative to other types of projectiles.

In addition to the composition of the projectile mass itself, armor-piercing capability
may be complemented by the jacketing, either by the material used or by the mass of the
jacketing relative to the overall projectile mass. The Swedish M39B 9x19mm cartridge is
one such example. This particular cartridge has a disproportionately thick jacket relative

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.23 A cross-section of the Swedish M39B 9x19mm projectile. Of particular interest
is the disproportionately thick jacket, relative the overall projectile mass. (Image courtesy of
Christian Sahlberg.)

to the overall projectile size. The proportions become particularly evident when compared
to other 9x19mm cartridges. A cross-section of the M39B is shown in Figure 2.23. The
German munitions firm MEN manufactures a 9x19mm cartridge specified for military
applications, designated the DM91. The DM91 overtly resembles an ordinary 9x19mm
cartridge; however, it contains a steel penetrator core encapsulated by the jacketing.
Surrounding the penetrator is a layer of lead, which makes the DM91 a sabot-type projec¬
tile. Sabots are a common approach to armor-piercing projectiles.

Tres Haute Vitesse (THV)

The Tres Haute Vitesse (THV) was developed by Societe Frangaise Munitions (SFM) and
appeared in the United States in the early 1980s. The THV was a radical approach in projectile
design and was built on existing caliber platforms such as .357 Magnum, .38 Special, 9x19mm,
.32 ACP (7.65x17mm or 7.65 Browning), and .45 ACP. The apparent intention was to create
hypervelocity projectiles on cartridge platforms that were already in use by law enforcement
agencies, permitting the use of the same firearms but with a projectile whose performance was
well in excess of any other cartridge in the given calibers at the time. The projectiles were very
distinct in appearance, and there were several designs, including a cylindrical body with a
conical tip and a similar version that differed in that the tip of the cone had a blunted, rounded
nose. The .357 Magnum THV projectile mass was 45 grains (2.9 grams) compared to other
.357-class projectiles, which range from 125 to 180 grains. The reported velocity of the .357
Magnum THV was approximately 2,625 ft/s. In contrast, a typical 158-grain .357 Magnum
hollow point achieved a velocity at the muzzle of some 1,250 ft/s. THV was very expensive
for the time, costing roughly $1 per cartridge in 1984. The high cost was no doubt due to the
projectile composition: They were made of solid brass and machined to shape.

Van Bruaene Rik (VBR)

Van Bruaene Rik (VBR) is a Belgian-based ammunition firm. The company specializes in
the cartridge that it developed, the 7.92x24mm VBR, but it also manufactures cartridges

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

in other calibers using its proprietary projectiles. The company manufactures several
varieties of projectiles designed around specific applications ranging from general pur¬
pose ball projectiles to armor-piercing penetrators, and fragmentation-causing types. The
company markets barrel reamers that allow an existing barrel to be resized to chamber
the 7.92x24mm. Custom replacement barrels are also available to retrofit an existing fire¬
arm. The VBR-PDW is purpose-built to chamber the 7.92x24mm, but can be rebarreled to
accommodate other calibers. In addition to the 7.92x24mm, VBR cartridges are available
in calibers 4.6x30mm, 5.7x28mm, 9x19mm, 9x18mm, .357 SIG AUTO, .38 Special, .357
Magnum, .40 S&W, 10mm Auto, .44 Magnum, .45 ACP, and .45 GAP (F.S.D.I.P. and VBR-
Belgium n.d.).

Frangible Projectiles

A frangible projectile is one that is designed to disintegrate into inert dust upon impacting
materials such as steel targets and backstops at gun ranges. There is still a risk of backs-
plash, where larger chunks of the projectile reflect back in the direction of the shooter or
bystanders on the firing line, so proper eye protection is a must. The concept of a frangible
projectile is not a new one, but it is one that has seen a tremendous resurgence of interest
in recent years.

During the Second World War, frangible projectiles using a lead/plastic blend were
used by U.S. forces for aircraft gunnery training purposes. During the war, the German
armaments industry developed (and German forces fielded) sintered-iron projectiles as a
wartime expedient measure to reduce the use of strategic materials. Although not a fran¬
gible projectile in the truest sense as defined today, it would appear to be the first practical
application of compressing a powdered metal under high temperature to produce a solid
projectile, an approach that would emerge years later as a means of producing a purpose-
designed frangible projectile.

The concept of a frangible projectile was explored at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory
by the Surface Processing and Mechanics Group. Powder metallurgy was determined to
be the best route; options such as ceramics were discarded. Their research concluded that
blending higher density, harder materials such as tungsten coupled with softer materials
such as tin or zinc produced a projectile that was practically similar to a traditional lead
projectile (Lowden and Vaughn 2009). Figure 2.24 shows fired frangible projectiles that
have broken apart.

In general, a frangible projectile is manufactured from a blend of powdered metals such
as copper, bismuth, tungsten, or tin. These projectiles are formed in their requisite shape and
held together through a bonding agent such as epoxy, nylon, or another matrix-type bond¬
ing additive, or they are sintered (adhered by heat). Frangible projectiles may or may not be
jacketed. One approach is to produce a projectile that is bimetal in nature, using an inert
powdered metal for the core and another metal to form the outer edge. A second approach is
to blend the powdered-metal constituents and combine them with the bonding agent.

Frangible projectiles have proven themselves to be a viable alternative to traditional
lead-based ammunition in training settings, and are particularly well suited for use in
indoor gun range environments. Frangible ammunition has been widely touted as the
“green” alternative to traditional lead-based ammunition and is almost universally primed
using a clean or “green” primer and powder compounds devoid of the heavy elements,
particularly lead.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.24 Fired frangible projectiles that have broken apart. Note the consistency and struc¬
ture of the interior of the projectile. (Image from author's collection.)

General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems of Canada manufacture two ver¬
sions of frangible ammunition: Short Stop and Greenshield, both of which are labeled as
nontoxic. RWS, a part of RUAG Ammotec USA, manufactures frangible training ammu¬
nition using a copper matrix. Prvi Partizan, a munitions manufacturer based in Serbia,
markets dedicated training frangible ammunition as its PPU Green Line GL. Speer’s
frangible ammunition is called Clean Fire and has dedicated law enforcement and gen¬
eral use product lines. Remington Arms markets two varieties of frangible ammunition:
Disintegrator CTF, which uses a jacketless copper/tin lead-free projectile, and Disintegrator
Plated Frangible, which has a metal-particle projectile encased in an electroplated copper
jacket. Winchester offers frangible ammunition under its Ranger line in popular handgun
and rifle calibers as well as shot shells. International Cartridge Corporation and Kilgore
Ammunition Products also manufacture frangible ammunition.

Frangible ammunition is not solely for training applications. Cartridges loaded
with frangible projectiles have also been developed for lethal applications. International
Cartridge Corp. manufactures frangible ammunition lines for training, hunting, and
lethal force (law enforcement, military, and personal defense) in the popular handgun and
long-gun calibers. Serbian munitions manufacturer Prvi Partizan manufactures a sintered
frangible projectile cartridge for lethal use. The Duty, or lethal, frangible cartridges are
of the hollow-point class (Prvi Partizan 2009). Corbon MPG (Multi-Purpose Green) is
advertised on the Dakota Ammo website to be dual application: “a perfect load for target
shooting and lead free ranges. It uses a gilding metal jacket and a compressed copper core.
This low penetrating round can also be used as a self-defense round” (Dakota Ammo/
Glaser 2012).

Another application for frangible-projectile technology has been in shot shells used
for door- or barricade-breaching operations. A breaching cartridge permits the explosive
defeat of doors by destroying hinges, locks, and handles. Breaching rounds can also be
used to defeat other barriers and even windows. Frangible projectiles are ideal for breach¬
ing applications in that they reduce the risk of injury to both the operator of the breaching
weapon and anyone standing in the periphery of the point of breach. The 12-gauge shot¬
gun can serve as a platform for breaching tools. Like other specialty munitions, breaching
rounds are conspicuously marked to alert the operator.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.25 Enhanced Penetration Round (EPR) manufactured by ExtremeShock. The pic¬
tured 9x19mm projectiles have a black composite tip insert, which should not be confused with
painted color markings. Also pictured is a loaded ExtremeShock 9x19mm cartridge. (Image
from author's collection.)

Blended-Metal Projectiles

A blended-metal projectile has been developed by Dynamic Research Technologies (DRT).
According to information supplied by DRT, the projectile is not sintered or bonded. The
projectiles are claimed to be 100% lead free and completely devoid of impurities. The
projectile is encased in a jacket, and the projectile itself is composed of a very hard, fine
metallic powder. The projectile is designed to completely disintegrate when encountering
materials that are hardened or denser than the projectile itself. DRT ammunition is strictly
dedicated for lethal-intended applications for hunting, personal defense, military, and law
enforcement (DRT 2011).

ExtremeShock is another company that currently markets lethal-application frangible
ammunition. Like other lethal-use frangibles, it is designed exclusively for use against soft
targets. The “projectile” is composed of tungsten powder encapsulated by a traditional
copper jacket. The powdered medium itself does not comprise a solid-mass projectile, per
se, but it is tightly packed and contained within the jacket, which acts as the container.
Like all frangible projectiles, these projectiles return to powder when impacting an object.
ExtremeShock cartridges are available in all modern popular calibers and some other
unusual calibers as well. Figure 2.25 shows a loaded ExtremeShock 9x19mm cartridge as
well as the projectile and the black cap.

Glaser Safety Slug

The Glaser Safety Slug was a milestone in the development of small-arms ammunition,
as it represented the first practical effort to develop a cartridge with lethal potential yet
designed to minimize, if not completely eliminate, the risk of overpenetration; that is, the
risk of injury or damage beyond the intended target. Born of the era when the airline pas¬
senger could smoke a cigarette while enjoying a complimentary cocktail, this cartridge was
developed after the airliner became a popular target for hijacking. The Glaser Safety Slug
was designed to deliver lethal force or at least incapacitating injury to the soft target while
preventing the penetration of a hard target, such as an interior wall or an aircraft fuselage.
It is presumed that the first generation of the Safety Slug was .38 Special caliber, as most
of the preferred concealed-carry revolvers of the day were so chambered. The composi¬
tion of the original Glaser Safety Slug resembled that of a small shot shell, a hollowed lead

Ammunition Cartridges

projectile completely filled with small-diameter shot and topped with a polymer or Teflon
tip. Undated literature produced by Glaser Safety Slug describes the projectile as a “pre¬
fragmented projectile” that, upon “impact with tissue simulants causes immediate and
complete fragmentation, releasefing] the core particles in a cone shaped pattern of over 330
sub projectiles” (Glaser Safety Slug n.d.).

Although it has passed through several advancements in the last 30 years, the concept
remains the same. Currently, the Glaser Safety Slug is manufactured by Corbon. According
to the literature released by the manufacturer, the Glaser Safety Slug is made in two con¬
figurations: one loaded with #12 shot and capped with a blue ball; the second loaded with
#6 shot and topped with a silver ball. Silver-ball cartridges are reported to have increased
penetration over the blue version. Glaser Safety Shot should not be confused with shot
shells produced by CCI designed for rodent and pest control.

Tracer Ammunition

Tracer ammunition contains a pyrotechnic component within the projectile that burns upon
detonation and continues to burn for a given period of time as it travels downrange from
the weapon. Tracer ammunition is viewed as a streak of light that travels along the general
trajectory that a projectile would take from the weapon, giving shooters a visual indication
about their point of aim. It is common in military applications to insert one tracer per five
rounds loaded on ammunition belts. Figure 2.26 shows belted tracer cartridges (circled).

There are variations of tracers: a traditional long-burning type that is visible over a great
distance, reduced illumination that burns with reduced light, and those whose emissions
are visible only to operators using night-vision equipment. The “headlight” tracer round has
an illuminating effect downrange, as though the viewer were observing using vehicle head¬
lights. Military tracer munitions are conspicuously marked in transportation vessels as well
as on individual cartridges. Depending on the source of origin and era of the tracer, the car¬
tridge will be color-coded on the projectile tip, cartridge body, and cartridge casing base. The
color of the illumination varies from yellow to red to green, depending on the ammunition.

Figure 2.26 Belted 7.62x51mm cartridges. Note the orange-painted tip, circled, indicating that
the cartridge is a tracer. (U.S. Air Force image; photographer Technical Sgt. Jeremy Lock, USAF.)

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Tracer ammunition has an incendiary effect, and the use of tracers can result in fires
in vegetation or flame-sensitive structures and can ignite fuel tanks and other volatile sub¬
stances. More than one fire has been inadvertently started when tracer ammunition was
fired into dry brush or when it ignited inflammables. Armor-piercing and incendiary-type
projectiles often have a tracer component to them, these combinations referenced as an
API (armor-piercing incendiary) or APTI (armor-piercing tracer incendiary) type projec¬
tile. Tracer shot shells have been manufactured but are uncommonly encountered.

Explosive Projectiles

The fragmenting action of projectiles impacting a target may often be described or errone¬
ously associated with an “explosive” occurrence. This association may be drawn particu¬
larly from controlled-expansion projectiles (hollow points), which may have a tendency
to break apart upon impact. Explosive small-arms ordnance was manufactured by every
nation and on a limited commercial basis for most of the twentieth century. For example,
during World War II, a variant of the Japanese Type 92 7.7mm semi-rimmed cartridge
was loaded with a lead projectile surrounding a core of PETN (pentaerythritol tetrani-
trate). The jacketing material was cupronickel. The projectile weighed 162 grains and was
intended for use exclusively with machine guns and likely in an antiaircraft or antivehicle
role. This particular cartridge was color-coded with a purple band painted where the pro¬
jectile meets the casing (Departments of the Army and the Air Force 1953). A schematic
of the cartridge is depicted in Figure 2.27. The Argentinean-manufactured 7.65x53.5mm
Type R, an observation cartridge, is a similar explosive cartridge. There are innumera¬
ble other examples historically of explosive cartridges, even in the context of small-arms
ammunition; such cartridges were manufactured wholesale across the world in all eras for
any possible military force as the consumer.

In the late 1970s, self-described “exploding projectiles” started to appear on the market
and were available in the popular calibers such as the .22 Long Rifle, .380 ACP, .38 Special,
.357 Magnum, 9x19mm Luger, .45 ACP, .44 Special, and .44 Magnum. Note the absence
of the .40 S&W, an exploding projectile that would not be developed for nearly 10 more
years. A study published in 1980 that sought to confirm or refute the claims made of the
Exploder brand cartridge as being a truly “explosive projectile” did not report any form of
explosion; instead, the projectile was observed to fragment when fired into ballistic gelatin.
It was reported that the 9mm Exploder cartridges overtly resembled standard 9mm jack¬
eted hollow points, having a cavity in the nose, although the Exploder had two cavities. A
more detailed inspection of the projectile revealed that “approximately Vi grain of a non-
perforated disk type smokeless powder is placed on the lower cavity and a small pistol type
primer (.175") seated in the upper cavity” (Thompson and Amble 1979).

Another such cartridge was the Devastator cartridge. These were marketed through
Bingham Ltd. of Atlanta, Georgia. The most notable appearance of the Devastator cartridge
was during the 1981 assassination attempt on the late former President Reagan by John
Hinckley. The results of the six fired projectiles are self-evident: No explosive occurrence
was documented or recorded, and precautionary measures taken at the hospital to shield
the attending staff from an unexploded “bomb” inside of George Washington University
Hospital—and more particularly lodged in the sitting president of the United States—have
been attributed to the angst and misinformation during that most confusing time. News
coverage of the event continued to reference explosive bullets, and even in more contem¬
porary works that revisit the event, the Devastator is still defined as an exploding bullet.

Ammunition Cartridges

Ball

Incendiary

Explosive

Figure 2.27 Wartime Japanese ammunition. (From U.S. Army Technical Manual TM 9-1985-
5, 1953.)

Hinckley’s decision to use a .22 in his assassination attempt maybe considered as a contrib¬
uting factor to the underperformance of the Devastator, due to its small size. However, it
seems more objective to discard the broader claims of such a projectile as being “explosive”
in a context that is more readily accepted: that such an amount of energetic material could
not possibly be loaded into a pistol projectile.

The Velex and the Velet cartridges were of similar construction to the Exploder and
Devastator cartridges. In 1978, the Velet cartridge, manufactured by the Velet Cartridge
Co. in Spokane, Washington, had been subjected to study as a possible explosive projectile.
The Velet was claimed to offer significantly greater “stopping power” than similar-caliber
hollow-point designs. The results of the testing found that when the Velet ammunition was
fired into ballistic gelatin “to observe the ‘explosion’ with the result that the bullet makes a
very dirty wound track as it appears that the nose is filled with ‘black powder’” (Lutz 1978).
According to Gerns in a 1984 report, the Velex/Velet projectile resembled a hollow-point-
type projectile with the cavity containing “black powder, #4 lead shot, and a red percussion
cap. More recently produced rounds have the black powder replaced with Pyrodex,' and
the percussion cap with a pistol primer” (Gerns 1984). These designs were not generally

Pyrodex is a trademarked black-powder propellant produced by Hodgdon.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

accepted as having any greater wounding effect than other hollow-point designs of the day
and gradually disappeared with the passage of time.

Historically, it would appear that the intention of these cartridges was to overcome
engineering challenges of the day that caused controlled-expansion projectiles to perform
unsatisfactorily Perhaps the thought was that by inserting a trace amount of black powder
and a percussion primer as a booster of sorts would create a small “explosion” that would
almost guarantee that the projectile would expand or fragment, causing an enhanced
wounding potential. In the case of the Velex/Velet projectiles, it stands to reason that the
addition of the #4 shot would have only enhanced the wounding potential of the projectile
by introducing more projectiles in the form of shot into the equation.

Dummy, Drilled, and Inert

Dummy, drilled, and inert cartridges refer to the same object: a cartridge analog that is
incapable of operation by design and intent. These cartridges are for nonfiring training,
demonstration, and instructional purposes such as the manual of arms, the proper loading
and unloading of firearms, cartridge nomenclature, ammunition handling practices and
procedures, and other similar purposes. There are numerous variations of inert dummies
ranging from pure polymer cartridges molded into the shape of a particular cartridge to
metallic casings with plastic inserts.

Great lengths are taken to ensure that dummy or inert cartridges are conspicuously
marked “INERT,” color coded, or otherwise immediately identifiable in such a way as to
alert the handler and other observers that such rounds are not live and are therefore suit¬
able for “dry” or nonfiring operations. The entire cartridge may be molded in a high-vis¬
ibility color such as blaze orange, which has become an industry standard safety color.
Metal-cased dummies may have plastic projectiles, again molded in high-visibility colors
for identification, as well as having either no primer seated or a high-visibility colored
insert in the primer pocket at the base of the casing. Metallic versions can be manufactured
from high-grade steel and intended for repetitive use, especially for armory work where a
weapon function is inspected and approved for service. These cartridges themselves may
also be marked and used as a tool, allowing for headspace and throat erosion to be checked.
Another variant of the steel dummy has a corrugated casing, or lines that run longitudi¬
nally down the casing. These all-steel variants are of one-piece construction and cannot
be disassembled. For inert dummies that are produced using actual casings and with a
projectile seated, the primer pocket will be empty or filled in with a high-visibility plug.
The casing itself will be drilled through in several places, preventing powder from being
stored inside the casing, as well as providing a visual clue that the object is an inert article.
Figure 2.28 shows examples of various dummy, drilled, and inert cartridges.

Blank Cartridges

Blank ammunition is manufactured in a wide variety of calibers (see Figure 2.29). Blank
ammunition may overtly appear to be the same as projectile-loaded ammunition. An obvi¬
ous difference might be the appearance of a casing mouth that is closed by crimping or by
having a small disc covering the opening of the casing. Blanks, when fired, produce the
characteristically loud report of a gunshot but without expelling a projectile. Blanks are
used as a way of simulating gunfire without the obvious danger of expelled projectiles in
situations such as signaling, drill and ceremony, theatrical productions, training, starter
pistols, and even in industrial tools such as nail guns that use gas pressure.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.28 (See color insert.) Examples of various dummy, drilled, and inert cartridges
(from left to right): safety orange marked 9x19mm, drilled casing 9x19mm, solid black plas¬
tic 5.56x45mm, corrugated casing 5.56x45mm, and a 12-gauge shell marked DUMMY. (Image
from author's collection.)

Figure 2.29 An assortment of blank cartridge styles. Some have "rosette" or crimped necks,
while others use a cap to cover the interior. (Image from author's collection.)

This is not to imply that blanks are not dangerous; blanks are extremely dangerous, and
there have been many fatal accidents involving blanks. One misconception about blanks is
that, as there is no projectile, there is no projection of any sort from the fired weapon, but
quite the contrary is true. Although no projectile is expelled per se, there is the potential
expulsion of unburned powder flakes, high-pressure hot gases, and other matter that could
cause serious, if not fatal, injury. It is often the case that blank firing causes serious injuries
because blank firings often occur in close quarters.

Live ammunition is frequently remanufactured into blanks by first removing the pro¬
jectile and removing the powder charge. In such instances, the projectile may or may not
be reseated into the casing. Regardless, a tremendous hazard still exists, as there is suffi¬
cient pressure in the detonation of the primer alone to cause the expulsion of the projectile.

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

If no projectile has been reseated, there is still a danger from debris exiting the casing
from the detonation of the primer. The author is aware of a training scenario where a law
enforcement officer was wounded when he was shot in the stomach by a handgun loaded
with commercially produced blanks. The death of actor Brandon Lee on a movie set on
March 31, 1993, was attributed to the young actor being shot by a firearm used as a prop to
film a scene. Gas operated automatic firearms may require the use of a blank-firing adapter
to reliably cycle the action of the weapon. Such devices attach to the end of the muzzle and
plug the barrel, allowing for sufficient gas pressure to be contained within the firearm to
allow it to automatically cycle. Ordinarily, simple blowback automatic weapons may not
require such an adapter due to the simplicity of their system of operation, assuming that
enough gas pressure is produced by the blank to cycle the action.

Another application for blanks is for use in the firing of rifle grenades. Blank car¬
tridges are loaded to facilitate the firing of a grenade from a muzzle-mounted grenade
launcher. Such delivery systems are not used in contemporary military firearms; however,
older weapon systems may employ a grenade-launching attachment. For the most part,
rifle grenade launchers were muzzle-attached devices that were removed when not in use.
The Yugoslavian version of the Russian SKS semiautomatic rifle, the M59/66, had a perma¬
nently attached rifle grenade launcher that also acted as a muzzle brake. The rifle grenade
launcher is often called a spigot. In certain less-lethal munitions-delivery systems, there
are similar devices used to provide the energy sufficient for propulsion. U.S. military rifle
grenade-launching cartridges include the M64 (7.62x51mm), the M3 and M6 (.30-06), and
the M195 (5.56x45mm).

Subsonic Cartridges

Many cartridges are capable of propelling the projectile above the speed of sound. For situ¬
ations where this may not be desirable, subsonic loads have been manufactured. A subsonic
load contains a reduced powder charge, sometimes in conjunction with a heavier projec¬
tile, to reduce the projectile’s velocity below the speed of the sound, and thus a suppressor
or silencer need only abate the report of the discharging of the cartridge and subsequent
muzzle blast. In this situation, it is counterproductive to then fire a projectile that creates
a crack as it breaks the sound barrier when the suppressor is attempting to muffle noise.

Certain firearms with integral suppressors are often specifically designed for use with
such special loads. Subsonic .22 cartridges are manufactured by Aguila (see Figure 2.30), CCI,
Federal Cartridge, Remington Arms, RWS (Dynamit Nobel), Winchester, and Eley. Fiocchi,
Israeli Military Industries, Remington Arms, and others manufacture 9x19mm subsonic
cartridges. ExtremeShock produces subsonic cartridges in .308, .223, .40 S&W, and .45 ACR
Corbon manufactures subsonic loads in .223, .308, .338 Lapua, and 6.8mm SPC. Especially
in .22 subsonic cartridges, some manufacturers opt not to load a propellant charge, so that
the projectile is expelled by the force of the priming compound alone. While not specifically
marketed as subsonic cartridges per se, reduced-propellant-load cartridges may result in sub¬
sonic performance in cartridges that otherwise would achieve supersonic velocity.

The .300 Whisper by SSK was designed from the outset to be a full-sized, full-powered
cartridge intended to travel subsonically to reduce noise signature. To achieve optimal
results, a suppressed weapon would be used. The .300 Whisper name is trademarked, so
similar cartridges may be found marketed under other names. In addition to the manu¬
facturers listed, subsonic ammunition is also produced by private reloaders or by smaller
firms that produce specialty ammunition.

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.30 Aguila brand .22 subsonic cartridges. The casing is more consistent in size with a
.22 Short, but these cartridges are for a .22 Long Rifle. Note that the projectile is of a dispropor¬
tionate length relative to other .22-class ammunition. (Image from author's collection.)

Sabots

Sabots are undersized projectiles, relative to the nominal projectile diameter, and are
essentially a projectile within a projectile. The sabot provides the balance of the diameter
that differentiates the undersized projectile to the host weapon’s interior bore diameter
(caliber). Modern sabots are typically plastic, but metal has also been used. Many have a
pedaled or claw appearance, allowing the projectile to be firmly seated within it. Sabot-
type cartridges are not uncommon and are found not only in center-fire cartridges, but
also in shot shells and even in muzzle-loading weapons. Functionally, sabots allow for a
lighter projectile to be propelled by a larger powder charge due to the oversized casing.
This is a win/win situation that benefits the two major variables affecting projectile perfor¬
mance: the projectile mass and the amount of energy that can be put onto it.

The M903, a .50 SLAP (Saboted Light Armor Piercing) cartridge, is utilized by the U.S.
military. The M903 contains a .30 projectile encapsulated in a .50 sabot, itself loaded into
a .50 BMG casing. The projectile weighs 355 grains and is constructed of tungsten. This is
in contrast to the M33 ball projectile, which weighs 706 grains. The reported velocity of
M903 is approximately 4,000 ft/s. The M962 is the counterpart of the .50 SLAP, the differ¬
ence being that it contains a tracer component. The Remington Accelerator was a center-
fire sabot. The Accelerator used a .22-class projectile loaded into .30-30, .308, and .30-06
cartridges. A plastic shot cup partially encapsulated the projectile and was separated from
the projectile in flight. The Accelerator was only manufactured for a brief period of time
in the late 1970s.

Figure 2.31 depicts a sabot-type projectile with a plastic shot cup. A sabot should not
be confused with a subcaliber insert that allows for undersized cartridges to be fired from
large-caliber firearms. Inserts are not ammunition cartridges, as they contain none of
the requisite components to properly identify them as ammunition. Rather, they are bet¬
ter defined as components to a firearm. The use of inserts in certain situations can raise

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.31 Rottweil Brenneke slug (top) and an expanding-style sabot slug complete with
plastic shot cup. (Images from author's collection.)

questions of legality, such as using an insert in an apparatus not deemed a firearm to per¬
mit the firing of ammunition.

Gyro Jet

On November 29, 1962, a company called M.B. Associates located in San Ramon,
California, filed for a patent to the U.S. Patent Office for a handgun designed to fire min¬
iature ballistic rockets. Patent 3,212,402 was granted October 19, 1965. The system has
colloquially become known as the gyro jet. On November 26, 1968, an improvement to
the original design was patented under U.S. Patent 3,412,641. The gyro jet cartridge, when
ignited, lit the contained propellant and accelerated the projectile out of the barrel. Unlike
conventional projectiles, the rocket continued to accelerate even as it traveled after leaving
the barrel. There were several variants of the original handgun, as well as rifles, that were
marketed and sold commercially, but they were not sold in great numbers. Today, gyro jet
firearms are only rarely seen. M.B. was the only company to bring the concept to market,
and the design did not go forward. A major hurdle faced by the gyro jet cartridge was that
the projectile diameter was 13mm, thus giving it a bore diameter in excess of .50" and
causing it to be classified as a destructive device in the United States. Even with a rede¬
signed gyro jet cartridge of 12.7mm (.50") in diameter, the concept did not have sustained
marketability. BATFE has since reclassified the gyro jets as Curios and Relics. Examples of
gyro jet guns and their unique cartridge survive today in private hands and museum col¬
lections. The gyro jet ammunition itself is quite rare, more so than the firearms.

Shot Pellets

The construction of a shot shell differs slightly from other center-fire cartridges. In addi¬
tion to the four basic components of a typical cartridge, the shot shell adds a fifth internal
component, the wadding. A wadding itself may be divided into three separate parts: a
powder wadding, cushion, and shot cup. Between the powder charge and the contained

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.32 Speer Lawman 12-gauge shot shell loaded with 00 buckshot. This particular load
uses eight copper-coated pellets instead of the more traditional nine-pellet load that has been
preferred by the industry. (Image from author's collection.)

projectiles is the powder wadding, which acts as a seal. The cushion is between the powder
wadding and the shot cup. The cushion literally cushions the force of the powder detona¬
tion against the projectile load. When the round is fired, the cushion also acts as a piston
to propel the projectiles down the barrel. The shot cup lines the walls of the shell interior
where the projectiles are located. Upon detonation, the projectiles exit the hull and travel
down the barrel, with the shot cup acting as a liner between the projectile and interior
of the bore. In most shot shells, these parts may be made completely of clear or off-white
colored plastic, or a combination of a felt or similar material with a plastic cushion and a
shot cup. Figure 2.32 shows a 12-gauge shot shell loaded with 00 buckshot. Table 2.4 lists
U.S. lead shot sizes.

Slugs

The shotgun slug is a single projectile contained within the shot shell. A slug can be viewed
as a reiteration of the musket ball, but fired from a shotgun loaded with a self-contained
cartridge instead of a breech-loaded musket. Slugs are used in hunting more hardy game
that may not be taken down by shot, or simply as a matter of shooter preference. Military,
law enforcement, and self-defense shooters employ slugs in lieu of shells loaded with shot.
In certain conditions, the use of shotgun slugs may offer tactical advantages over rifles and
offer a new dimension to deployment of shotguns into scenarios with the potential for the
application of lethal force. The slug offers a greater range than shot while eliminating the
scattering of pellets that may errantly strike surrounding objects or persons unintentionally.

There are two basic slug designs. The Brenneke-style slug is of solid construction. In
contrast, the Foster -style slug has a hollow base. Both feature distinct circular cuts on the
exterior that often lead either variation to be called rifled slugs, although functionally these
cuts do not act as rifling in the true sense of the word. Traditionally, European slugs tend

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Table 2.4 United States Lead Shot Sizes

Shot Size

Diameter (inches)

Diameter (millimeters)

000 Buckshot

.36

9.14

00 Buckshot

.34

8.64

0 Buckshot

.32

8.38

#1 Buckshot

.30

7.62

#2 Buckshot

.27

6.90

#3 Buckshot

.25

6.83

#4 Buckshot

.24

6.10

.22

5.59

.20

5.16

BBB

.19

4.83

.177

4.50

.16

4.00

.15

3.81

.14

3.40

.13

3.25

.12

3.00

.11

2.70

.10

2.50

7V4

.095

2.41

.09

2.30

.08

2.03

.07

1.78

.059

1.50

to be of Brenneke design, while American preference is more toward the Foster. It is not
uncommon to see European shells marked to identify which variety of slug is loaded.

A variation of the slug is the sabot, as the slug itself is encapsulated in a sleeve and,
like other sabot projectiles, is subcaliber relative the bore diameter it is intended to be fired
from (see Figure 2.31). This sleeve prevents physical contact between the bore and the slug
as the slug travels down the barrel, reducing barrel wear and maintaining the continuity
of the slug. Sabots may also act as a capsule for other subcaliber projectiles, allowing for a
smaller projectile to be fired from a larger diameter bore safely without having the projec¬
tile “skip” off the bore, possibly damaging the barrel and degrading accuracy.

Duplex Shot Shells

The duplex cartridge contains multiple-sized projectiles within a single cartridge casing.
The duplex is not to be confused with the standard shot shell, which contains a plural¬
ity of pellets that are all the same size. Duplex and triplex cartridges were the subject of
research and development in military circles. The rationale behind such loads was that,
with the average soldier carrying a machine gun, the marksmanship usually was a little
lacking between trigger-control discipline and the high rate of fire and muzzle rise inher¬
ent in automatic weapons. A duplex or triplex cartridge permitted the primary projectile
to travel along to the point of aim as set by the shooter using the sights. The secondary
projectile, which was seated behind the primary projectile, would follow and strike a point

Ammunition Cartridges

slightly randomly off from the point of aim, potentially enhancing hit probability. Duplex
cartridges are oddities at this point, likely to be seen only in collections.

There are also duplex shot shells. Duplex shot shells are loaded with two or more dif¬
ferent sizes of shot; normal shot shells that contain a single type of shot are not considered
duplex. Currently, Remington Arms manufactures duplex shot shells on their Premier line
for turkey hunting. These 12-gauge shells come in either 2%" or 3" lengths, containing #4
and #6 shot. Previously, Remington Peters produced a duplex shot shell that was similar.
The only observed examples of this were 12 gauge. They had a blackened case head, an
olive drab green plastic hull, and were marked 4x6. An Italian line of shot shells marketed
under the Centurion name offers a duplex shot shell in 12 gauge, containing a single .65
slug coupled with six #1 buckshot-size pellets. Winchester law enforcement ammunition
offers a combination slug/buckshot-loaded shot shell.

Other Types of Shot Shell Loads

The fact that a shot shell of any gauge is simply a wide-mouthed cylinder lends itself to great
versatility. Less-lethal munitions, chemical munitions, and other esoteric lethal loads such
as flechettes, bolo rounds, tracers, and even projectiles from nonshot shell cartridges can
be fired from shot shells. A bolo round consists of two steel balls joined by a length of steel
wire. Flechettes resemble small arrows or crossbow bolts, having a rodlike body pointed on
the end. Flechettes have been used not only in shot shells, but also in field artillery-sized
munitions and in rocket warheads. The U.S. military actively used flechettes during the
Vietnam conflict, and they appeared to be effective in the jungle environment. The stan¬
dard U.S. military shot shell contained 20 flechettes weighing 8 grains apiece. These shells
had typical plastic hulls with a brass case head. Surplus or homebuilt flechette cartridges
are encountered, and the flechettes themselves are available commercially, sourced from
demilled ordnance and sold for scrap value.

Homemade shot shells have been found loaded with everything from small coins to
nails and even rock salt. Said to date from the 1920s as a poor man’s expedient, cut shot is a
reconfigured shot shell that behaves more like a slug than shot. Cut shot is fashioned from a
shot shell by making an offset circular incision around the circumference of the shot shell,
approximately one-half to two-thirds down from the top of the hull. The ends of the inci¬
sion overlap slightly but do not meet, as it is not the intention to cut the shell completely
open but to create a weak point in the hull. The incision penetrates the hull body but ideally
does not penetrate into the wadding or shot cup contained inside the shell. Cut shot has
the effect of keeping clustered groups of shot together when expelled from the shotgun, in
essence a form of rudimentary slug. It is an interesting thought to ponder if the cut shot
concept was used as a basis for later prefragmented and other frangible-type projectiles.

Less-Lethal Munitions

The term less lethal has replaced the former terminology of less than lethal. This subtle
shift in language came after the recognition that force options that could be deployed that
were not intended to cause serious permanent injury or death could, in fact, result in same,
as there are risk factors when force is applied that are beyond anyone’s practical control.
There is a myriad assortment of less-lethal-force options, ranging from chemical muni¬
tions, electronic control devices, and impact projectiles. This topic has become a field of
study unto itself. For the purposes of this text, impact-projectile munitions will be covered
on the basis that they are, in fact, employed around the world by civilian law enforcement,

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

security providers, and even military forces. The delivery systems for kinetic-impact pro¬
jectiles tend to be firearms-based platforms that have been dedicated to less-lethal-force
delivery, as well as platforms that are specifically designed around less-lethal-force delivery.

Examples of converted firearms platforms include 12-gauge shotguns and 40mm gre¬
nade launchers for delivering less-lethal munitions. The 37mm grenade launchers were
developed specifically for law enforcement applications and never intended to deliver lethal
munitions; the bore is too small to accommodate the lethal 40mm munitions. This has not
prevented clandestine manufacture of 37mm munitions that are lethal. Other handguns
and rifles have also been used as delivery platforms for less-lethal-force options, primar¬
ily to fire impact projectiles. The general term used by media outlets and others in talking
about impact projectiles is rubber bullets, although the projectile need not necessarily be
made of rubber, nor do they necessarily constitute “bullets,” even as the term is casually
applied. Ordinarily, lethal firearms that have been dedicated to less-lethal-force options
are conspicuously marked by way of changing the color of the stock to orange, blue, or
another attention-getting color and even marking the weapon for rapid identification as a
less-lethal-force option. Orange has been adopted as the industry standard for less-lethal
delivery platforms, phasing the colors blue and red out.

Less-lethal munitions fired from shotguns include kinetic-impact projectile options
such as bean bags and rubber projectiles, including shot and stabilized projectiles. Bean
bags are literally small fabric bags filled with dried beans, lead birdshot, or other media
that give the bag some mass (see Figure 2.33). These bags are generally not round in shape:
They can have a teardrop shape, take on the form of a square, or have drag fins to provide
a form of stability. Bag-type projectiles often have ultraviolet dyes that will transfer onto a
subject’s skin or clothing that may remain for weeks on end. In the event that the subject
eludes apprehension immediately but is later encountered, an ultraviolet light could be
used to confirm that the person had been exposed to the marking dye, perhaps placing
that individual at the previous encounter. Bag-type projectiles may also contain a chemical
agent that deploys upon impact.

Rubber-ball shells are simply shotgun shells where the lethal metallic shot load has been
replaced with a rubber shot load, generally the size of #1 or 0 buckshot. Another option

Figure 2.33 A 12-gauge "Super Sock" less-lethal munition. The projectile is a small fabric bag
loaded with lead shot. (Image from author's collection.)

Ammunition Cartridges

is single rubber-finned projectiles, loaded one per shell. These resemble small bombs or
mortar rounds in their outward appearance. Foam, rubber, or wooden baton-type kinetic-
impact projectiles are cylindrically shaped, typically having flat edges to avoid piercing
injuries, and are intended to deliver the force by direct, blunt impact onto the intended
target. Such baton-type projectiles were often called knee knockers, as they were intended
to be skipped off pavement in front the intended target and then deflected into the lower
legs. Shot shells can also be loaded with any number of chemical agents ranging from OC
(oleoresin capsicum) to the tear gases CS and CN in powder or liquid forms. Although they
are not less-lethal munitions, shot-shell-based distraction loads are available. These rounds
are a smaller version of the “flash bang” devices commonly used by law enforcement and
military forces to disorient persons preceding an assault. The report of such a device is a
bright flash of light accompanied with a loud explosion. All less-lethal munitions are con¬
spicuously marked as such to avoid confusion with lethal munitions and to clearly indicate
what load is contained.

The FN 303 is a dedicated chemical agent delivery system. Developed by Fabrique
Nationale, the system is available as either a stand-alone delivery system or as an ancillary
device that can be attached to another weapons platform or system and that can be used
as an alternative to the lethal-force option also available to the operator. The 303 operates
by compressed air, delivering 8.5-g, .68 caliber projectiles, which have a circular fin pat¬
tern running the circumference of the projectile. The principle intention of the 303 system
is to deliver a kinetic-impact projectile to induce pain compliance of the intended target.
Secondary effects can be caused by using a projectile loaded with a chemical munition.
Several variations of munitions are available to authorized entities, including washable and
indelible paints, a PAVA/OC (pelargonic acid vanillylamide/oleoresin capsicum) chemical
munition, a basic impact projectile, and a dedicated training variant. The 303 munitions
have a body constructed of polystyrene and are fin stabilized. The front of the projectile is
filled with bismuth powder; the rear of the body is loaded with a secondary payload (FNH
USA n.d.).

The purpose of less-lethal-force options is to obtain lawful compliance while reducing
the chances for serious injury or death. A less-lethal-force option relies on the ability to
cause temporary incapacitation and/or pain compliance. This incapacitation or voluntary
compliance is intended to allow a person to be taken into custody without further resis¬
tance, as they would acquiesce to the control of authorities. The presence and application
of less-lethal-force options, regardless of the nature of the particular instrument in ques¬
tion and technological enhancements, is here to stay as a viable option for law enforcement
operations. The tools and technology have evolved, but the basic premise that makes less-
lethal options work has not changed.

From an investigative standpoint, the application of less-lethal force presents no less
a challenge than the application of lethal force, particularly if the application of the less-
lethal force results in serious injury or death. In such a scenario, the investigator must
carefully document the delivery system used as well as the presence of residues of force
application, such as spent munitions casings, projectiles, dye markings, and physical dam¬
age to structures that occurred during the scenario. The presence of stimuli that precipi¬
tated the application of the force should also be identified and documented. Examples of
the stimuli include the presence of readily identified weapons (firearms and edged objects),
potential weapons (broken glass objects, sticks, and the like), and the actions of persons
over the course of the scenario (constructing barricades, acts of vandalism, presence of

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

narcotic substances and paraphernalia, notes and recordings stating intentions, physical
indicators of ideological extremism, etc.). Other more traditional forms of physical evi¬
dence cannot be overlooked within the context of the investigation. In the case of a mis-
identification of munitions, hypothetically speaking, such as the intent to use less-lethal
kinetic-impact munitions and the inadvertent loading and use of lethal-force munitions
fired from a weapon, the investigator must be diligent in documenting the expended muni¬
tions, the other munitions loaded into the arm, and other munitions carried on the person
of the operator.

Training Ammunition

Dedicated training ammunition was developed shortly after the adoption of the self-con¬
tained cartridge. It was developed as a less expensive and safer alternative to full-power
cartridges intended for duty or combat use. Training ammunition is generally most recog¬
nized by the use of alternative projectiles and is clearly marked as such to prevent acciden¬
tal issue and use in combat situations.

The first training cartridges typically had projectiles made of wood, paper, or metal
with reduced propellant charges, sometimes replacing smokeless powder with black pow¬
der as an added margin of safety. Such training cartridges were not particularly well suited
for marksmanship training due to their different ballistic behavior from standard ammu¬
nition, but they may have fit this role on reduced-distance ranges, where targets were pro¬
portionally reduced to simulate greater ranges.

In lieu of dedicated training cartridges, many nations had arms produced that resem¬
bled issued weapons but fired .22 ammunition, or they issued kits that allowed the use of
subcaliber cartridges by replacing parts of the action to accommodate the smaller car¬
tridge. Companies such as Sig Sauer and aftermarket, third-party sources manufacture
.22 conversion kits. Offshoots of training ammunition include reduced-power cartridges
designed for use as “gallery” or “guard” applications. These cartridges featured reduced
power for safety purposes, as in a shooting-gallery setting or when issued to prison guards
as an alternative to full-power cartridges, presumably with the intent to be used in a less-
lethal manner as opposed to causing lethal injury. Such cartridges may be color coded to
identify them as such, or the packaging material would be marked accordingly. As previ¬
ously discussed, frangible ammunition and plastic-projectile cartridges are manufactured
as dedicated training ammunition.

Marking Cartridges

FX marking cartridges and CQT (Close Quarters Training) ammunition are marketed
under the name Simunition by General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems of
Canada. Simunition represents five different lines of training ammunition, including
training blanks and frangible projectiles. FX cartridges are designed to allow participants
in the training environment to shoot one another while reducing the risk of injury. The FX
cartridge is a marking cartridge; the plastic projectile contains a colored dye that shows
where hits occurred. The FX cartridge has a short brass casing with a plastic insert that
completes the length of the cartridge casing. The projectile itself has deep cuts in the nose,
allowing the dye to spatter in a starlike pattern when impact occurs. Glock has continu¬
ously produced a dedicated version of its model 17, called the Glock 17 FX, that is expressly
designed to use FX cartridges. Outwardly, the Glock 17 FX has a blue-colored slide to
distinguish it from standard Glock handguns. The 17 FX is shown in Figure 2.34, and

Ammunition Cartridges

Figure 2.34 (See color insert.) The Glock 17T is dedicated exclusively for training. The frame
is blue polymer to clearly identify it as a training aid. Also depicted is the magazine with blue
floor plate for identification. Note the Simunition cartridge loaded in the magazine. (Image
from author's collection.)

FOR USE IH MILITARY/ UW ENFORCEMENT TRAINING
UNDER SUPERVISION OF QUAUFIED INSTRUCTOR

"y . isMM l

0M of this product without
the recommended eyo protection
remit in cerious in|uries or dam

cun

* can result in serious injuries or damage

Training FOR

THE REAL WORLD

50 CARTRIDGES 9

TRAINING CARTRIDGES

Figure 2.35 A box of 9x19mm Simunition marking cartridges. Note the IVI head stamp,
which indicates manufacture by General Dynamics Ordnance & Tactical Systems. (Image
from author's collection.)

Simunition marking cartridges are shown in Figure 2.35. Conversion kits exist for other
models of handguns and rifles that are popular with law enforcement. Speer LE markets
a similar product, called Force-on-Force, which also uses a modified firearm in a manner
similar to that of Simunition. An aluminum casing is used, and the projectiles also mark
impacts using a high-visibility dye.

Short-Range Training Ammunition

SRTA (short-range training ammunition) represents a variation of training ammunition
that uses plastic projectiles in lieu of conventional metal projectiles. SRTA is designed to
mimic the performance of standard projectiles while enhancing the safety margins by
using nonleaded projectiles that reduce environment impact and the risk of projectile rico¬
chet or overpenetration in training environments. SRTA is in use by the U.S. military in
5.56x45mm (designated M862), 7.62x51mm (M973), and 12.7x99mm (M858). In addition

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

to these, there are tracer versions of the 7.62x51mm (M974) and 12.7x99mm (M860), des¬
ignated SRTA-T (short-range training ammunition, tracer). SRTA is used in conjunction
with the Close Combat Mission Capability Kit (CCMCK). The CCMCK is a series of differ¬
ent kits for different weapons: The M1041 is configured for the standard M9 (Beretta 92) or
Ml 1 (Sig Sauer P228) 9x19mm handguns; the M1042 is configured for the 5.56x45mm M16
and M4 family of firearms; and the M1071 is configured for the 5.56x45mm M249 Squad
Automatic Weapon (SAW). As an added safety margin, installation of these kits prevents
the use of standard ammunition. SRTA is a dedicated training cartridge; however, it should
be treated as lethal. Like any projectile, it is certainly capable of causing serious injuries
or death. CQT (Close Quarters Training), developed and marketed by General Dynamics
Ordnance and Tactical Systems of Canada, is the same as SRTA. The Prvi Partizan Ecology
Line is a plastic-projectile training cartridge that can be considered a SRTA-type cartridge.

Projectile Jacketing

A projectile jacket acts as a bearing surface between the projectile and the firearm’s bore.
With the introduction of rifled bores, bare-lead projectiles were found to be unsatisfactory,
as the lead from the projectile tended to shave off into the groves in the bore, over time cre¬
ating a smooth bore due to lead accumulation in the rifling grooves. This fouling resulted
in a reduction in accuracy, and thus gilding or jacketing material came into use to encap¬
sulate the lead. Like the musket balls of the muzzle loaders before them, the first center-fire
cartridges were often undersized relative to the diameter of the bore to permit the use of
paper or cloth patches to coat the projectile, thereby eliminating the fouling effect of bare
lead. As projectile design and technology improved, it was also realized that the jacketing
material had a secondary effect: The jacketing helped maintain the shape of the projectile
as it impacted the target. Bare lead would tend to fragment, deform, and perhaps even dis¬
integrate upon impacting the target surface. Consequently, various projectiles with vary¬
ing styles of jacketing exist, based upon the designed intent of the projectile.

Hunting cartridges are often semijacketed, leaving a bare tip of lead to facilitate expan¬
sion and perhaps the fragmentation effect, offering greater assurance of a single incapaci¬
tating shot to game. Other projectiles are fully jacketed so as to encapsulate the projectile
core, ensuring a certain measure of projectile adhesion and to prevent any form of lead
exposure whatsoever from the projectile. The Blazer brand center-fire cartridges feature
a total metal jacket (TMJ) that encapsulates the entire projectile, including the base. This
ensures that no bare lead is exposed to the environment, thus addressing environmental
and health concerns about lead exposure. In the case of a fully jacketed projectile, the jacket
or gilding material completely encompasses the projectile from tip to end, but likely not
the projectile base. Any of the variety of projectiles can be fully jacketed. Traditionally, full
metal jacketing did not enclose the projectile base; thus, if observed from reverse, the lead-
core portion of the projectile would be visible. Full-metal-jacketed projectiles are practi¬
cally requisite for use in self-loading firearms, as bare-lead tips have a tendency to deform
when traveling from the magazine to the chamber on the feed ramp, with a resultant jam
or misfeed. This is especially true with older semiautomatic firearms that were intended
to be used with full-metal-jacketed projectiles. All military projectiles are fully jacketed.

Semijacketed projectiles are partially clad with the jacketing material but leave the tip
or nose exposed. How much nose is left exposed as bare lead is subject to the individual

Ammunition Cartridges

design characteristics of that particular projectile. The edge of the jacketing material can
be serrated in appearance, or it can be a smooth edge. Quite often, semijacketed projectiles
are of the hollow-point variety, and thus the design intent is to leave some lead exposed
to encourage the mushrooming effect of hollow points when terminal ballistics occur.
Frequently, dedicated hunting loads are semijacketed, as are some revolver-based caliber
cartridges, as they do not present feed issues that would be present in semiautomatic arms.

Jacket separation is a significant issue with projectiles. All varieties of projectiles may
suffer from jacket separation. Given the various materials that projectiles may impact and
subsequently penetrate—various types of glass, sheet metal, soft tissue, construction mate¬
rials, etc.—the behavior of projectile jackets is hard to reliably and consistently predict
because it is based on innumerable variables. Jacket separation directly affects the perfor¬
mance of the projectile, especially with controlled-expansion types. These projectiles rely
heavily upon retaining their jacketing to fully effect expansion and remain intact for maxi¬
mum performance, as a displacing or fragmenting jacket will reduce the effectiveness of
any projectile. The author is familiar with a situation where a large semijacketed projectile
penetrated automotive glass, causing the projectile and jacket to completely separate from
one another. The two individual pieces continued, although the trajectory of the jacket
shifted slightly, where upholstery was perforated before striking an individual. The two
pieces, now acting as independent projectiles, impacted one slightly above the other, leav¬
ing two distinct gunshot wounds.

Metal Jacketing

Copper has overwhelmingly remained the material of choice for jacketing material, but it is
not the only option. Steel has been used, particularly in military cartridges. Bimetal jacket¬
ing uses two layers of metal to coat the projectile mass. The Winchester Silver Tip was not
truly jacketed in silver; instead it was a bimetal jacketing that used a nickel outer jacket
over a copper jacket. Many Eastern Bloc projectiles are bimetal jacketed, typically copper
over steel. Tombac (also spelled Tombak), a malleable form of the brass alloy, is another
jacketing material that is used. Like steel, copper alloys such as cupronickel, cuprotin, and
cuprozinc have been used in military cartridges, particularly on armor-piercing projec¬
tiles, but they were not uncommon on military cartridges in the early twentieth century.
Figure 2.36 shows a projectile clad with copper over a steel jacket.

Metal Washes and Plating

Copper or gilding metal washes are used on .22 cartridges. These are not true jackets
per se, since the coating material is not a separate metallic component affixed to the pro¬
jectile. Rather, it is literally “washed” onto the projectile. Plating is the application of a
very thin coating of material over the projectile and is not jacketing in the true technical
sense. Projectile jackets are a separate component that is bonded or otherwise affixed to
the projectile, whereas plating is done by an electrolytic or chemical process that adheres
the plating material to the projectile. The process is quite similar to that used in the jew¬
elry industry, where precious metals are applied over a base metal. Plated projectiles are
prevalent in the .22 class, especially in .22 Short and .22 Long Rifle. Copper is the material
of choice, although another material, called Luballoy, has been seen on a wide variety of
calibers, including larger calibers such as .38 Special. Luballoy is an alloy of copper, tin,
and zinc.

100

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.36 The Hornady DGX (Dangerous Game) 500-grain projectile in .45 caliber. The
projectile is clad with copper over a steel jacket; also note the flat meplat. (Image courtesy of
Hornady Manufacturing.)

Nyclad

The Nyclad projectile was developed by gun maker Smith & Wesson and released into the
market in 1982. Almost immediately it drew criticism stemming from allegations that the
projectile was purposely designed to defeat soft body armor worn by law enforcement. In
fact, the Nyclad was never designed or intended to be an armor-piercing type projectile,
although it was branded as such by media outlets and outspoken political figures acting
on erroneous information. The use of nylon was simply an attempt to create an alternative
to metallic-based bearing surfaces on projectiles. Ultimately the Nyclad passed into the
hands of Federal Cartridge Corporation. In 1983, Federal Cartridge announced produc¬
tion of .38 Special cartridges using Nyclad jacketing. Nyclad, manufactured by Federal, is
still commercially available.

Other Composite Jacketing Materials

Teflon-jacketed projectiles were apparently only manufactured by the North American
Ordnance Corporation on behalf of the KTW Co., and were short-lived. The projectile had
a Teflon jacket over a projectile fabricated of solid brass. Teflon, like Nyclad, was another
attempt at a nonmetallic projectile bearing surface; however, it suffered the same political
backlash and was quickly legislated to contraband status in various venues. Composite
jacketing has been revisited in recent years, with CBC reporting that it has developed
projectiles using “special resin, graphite, and Teflon” as alternatives to metallic-based
jacketing in an effort to reduce barrel wear. Barnes XLC coated projectiles have a distinc¬
tive blue color and could be potentially mistaken for polymer projectiles. The coating is
sprayed on the projectile and dried. The coating is meant as an alternative to traditional
copper jacketing, although the projectile itself is solid copper, and is used in the Barnes X
projectiles in hunting calibers and sold to many different firms for loading. Ammunition
manufactured by the firm 3-D Police Ammunition used projectiles that were constructed
of zinc, thereby eliminating potential lead exposure from the projectile, as no lead was
used in the manufacture; however, the project was not commercially successful. Polymer
has been used as a bearing surface for bare lead projectiles. Sellier & Bellot uses plastic to
coat such projectiles.

Ammunition Cartridges

101

Nonjacketed

Nonjacketed projectiles are available as old stock and new manufacture. The use of non¬
jacketed ammunition is generally not recommended, as the bare lead will foul the bore.
Nonetheless, substantial quantities of bare lead projectiles remain in existence and still
appear, especially in older calibers. Unjacketed .22 cartridges are still in production, due to
economy of manufacture. Most modern bare lead projectiles are manufactured in archaic
calibers known as cowboy calibers. These cartridges allow shooters with an interest in this
type of sport shooting to use ammunition that is historically and technically proper.

Projectile Mass

Any specific cartridge caliber can be viewed as a platform with a diversity of loads and
projectiles. These variations are based upon the intended use of that specific loading.
Projectile weights are expressed in grains, from the apothecary weight system, and com¬
monly abbreviated gr. In the instance of the ubiquitous 9x19mm Luger, the industry has set
grain weights of 115,124, and 147 as “standards” in the sense that the majority of cartridge
manufacturers produce the 9x19mm in those weights; however, those values should not
be considered the only potential projectile weights to be encountered in that particular
caliber class. Projectiles of the class are commercially manufactured in weights between
92.6 grains and 150 grains. Magtech ammunition markets 9x19mm Luger projectiles in
92.6- and 95-grain weights, in addition to the other “standard weights.” Sellier & Bellot
manufactures 140 grains and 150 grains in 9x19mm in subsonic loads. By increasing mass,
the projectile velocity is reduced to a high subsonic figure, which permits reasonable bal¬
listic performance yet also allows a suppressed firearm to abate the report of the muzzle
blast and not have to contend with the sonic boom. Obviously, the lighter the projectile, the
higher the velocity will be given a standard powder charge.

The most popular calibers have the widest range of weights. Projectile mass, rela¬
tive to the SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers Institute) or CIP
(Permanent International Commission for Firearms Testing) powder charge, should not
be confused with Magnum, +P, Proof, or otherwise heavily charged cartridges, which are
a separate issue. When a projectile is recovered intact, the mass can be used as a starting
point to ascertain what caliber class the projectile belongs to. The grain weight is strictly an
approximation, and very subtle variations will be expected, even if the projectile is wholly
intact. When weighing a projectile, it is recommended to use both ounces and grams, as
most ordinary scales are not set up to measure grain directly, although scales specifically
made for the ammunition reloading market are set up to do so. Both weights can then
be converted to grains, although there will not be complete agreement between the two
results. Measurements of the projectile mass are taken alongside measurements of the pro¬
jectile dimensions, yielding suggestions of candidate class cartridges.

Projectile Material Composition
Materials Selection

The diversity of applications for ammunition has led to a broad list of materials that have
been used to construct projectiles. For obvious reasons, specialized types of cartridges

102

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

such as tracers require additional constituents to fulfill their design purpose. As materials
science has improved, the list of materials applied to projectile construction has grown.

Lead

Lead—a common, inexpensive, and easily malleable metal—has been the material of
choice for projectiles since firearms were developed. Traditionally, lead projectiles were
cast by pouring molten lead into molds and allowing it to cool. These molds were in the
shape of the final projectile product. Projectiles are commonly called bullets; however, this
term may create confusion when referring to bullets, either as unfired projectiles, fired
projectiles, or loaded ammunition cartridges that are ready for use. Although lead remains
the mainstay of projectile materials, other materials have been developed and have gradu¬
ally phased into the marketplace. Leaded projectiles are not made of pure lead. Lead often
contains traces of other elements such as arsenic, antimony, tin, copper, bismuth, and sil¬
ver, either naturally or by design. Bismuth, for example, is added to increase the hard¬
ness of the lead. Other materials have been tried in conjunction with projectile designs
to create projectiles that have a dedicated purpose, such as armor-piercing or incendiary
characteristics. Armor-piercing projectiles, while perhaps having some lead in the projec¬
tile composition, use heavier metals such as tungsten carbide or hardened steel to create
a heavier, denser projectile capable of defeating certain levels or varieties of armor, rang¬
ing from soft body armor used by persons to lightly armored vehicles. It will likely be a
long time before lead phases out, but numerous alternatives to using lead exclusively have
appeared on the horizon, and many are already present in the marketplace.

Solid-Metal Projectiles

Solid metallic projectiles are produced that can do away with the use of any lead as well
as any form of jacketing. Instead of producing a lead projectile that is then bonded to a
jacket, why not just produce a projectile of a metal that has ideal metallurgical properties?
Over the course of the twentieth century, projectiles made of metals other than lead were
produced. In January 2010, McMillan Group International, based in Phoenix, Arizona,
announced that they were putting into regular production .50 BMG projectiles that were
machined from solid brass using CNC (computer numerical control). The projectile weighs
746 grains and is represented as match grade. It is apparent that machining individual
projectiles is a very time-consuming and expensive proposition; but it must result in a very
high quality product.

CBC markets a line of hollow-point solid copper projectiles in .380 ACP, 9mm Luger,
.38 Special +P, .357 Magnum, .40 S&W, .44 Magnum, .45 ACP +P, .454 Casull, .45 GAP,
and .500 S&W, identified for hunting and defense purposes (shown in Figure 2.17).
Component projectiles for loading as well as loaded cartridges are available. Remington
Arms features an entire line of solid copper shotgun loads as well as center-fire ammu¬
nition. Corbon’s DPX line comprises hollow-point-type projectiles constructed of solid
copper. According to the company website, when DPX was tested using FBI protocols,
the DPX projectile “achieved soft tissue penetration of 12-17" with reliable and consistent
expansion. The recovered bullets are 150% to 200% of the original size and 100% weight
retention when recovered from the test medium of 10% ballistic gelatin with four layers of
10-oz. denim barrier” (Dakota Ammo 2012). Other firms that manufacture lathe-turned

Ammunition Cartridges

103

projectiles include Barnes Bullets, Cutting Edge Bullets, Jamison International, and
others.

Solid copper projectiles would appear to have inherent advantages over lead projec¬
tiles: Solid copper projectiles are less likely to fragment and lose mass; there is no need
for a separate jacket or bearing surface; and the environmental issues surrounding lead
are addressed. It is expected that solid copper projectiles will expand their presence in the
market, much like powdered metal composition or frangible projectiles have.

The U.S. Army experimented with using a projectile core made of a composition con¬
taining nylon and tungsten as a lead alternative. This concept was abandoned in 2006.
According to the U.S. Army Environmental Command, “190,000 pounds of tungsten,
tungsten-nylon core and completed projectiles” were disposed of through auction in
September 2008 (U.S. Army Environmental Command 2008).

Shot Pellets

Like other projectiles, shot pellets may be plated with a metal such as copper, nickel, or
zinc. Traditionally, shot pellets were made of lead, but alternative pellets made of steel,
bismuth, tungsten, tungsten-iron, tungsten-polymer matrix, and extra-hardened lead
are readily available. Environmental concerns surrounding the use of lead shot being left
behind in the field from the hunt or ending up in game has prompted alternative materials
to come to market. In many venues, the use of steel shot for hunting is required, with an
outright prohibition on using lead shot at all. The use of tungsten in shot follows the appli¬
cation of this metal in other projectiles. Chilled shot is a softer lead alloy because of the
reduced antimony content, relative to standard lead alloys, generally accepted as between
2%-6% antimony content.

Wooden Projectiles

An alternative, if archaic, material that has been used to construct projectiles is wood.
Wood, like plastic, was often used in ammunition intended for the purposes of drill,
instruction of the manual of arms, short-range training, and perhaps even by guards as
a rudimentary form of less-lethal force. Observed examples of wooden cartridges show
that they are solid wood and completely inert; they are seldom seen today outside of col¬
lector circles. Cartridge casings manufactured of brass or substitute metals that are live
cartridges loaded with a wooden projectile do exist. As with modern polymer projectiles,
these cartridges were intended to be used for drill, ceremonial, or training purposes. There
have been unsubstantiated stories dating back to the Pacific campaign during World War
II where marines were reported to have been shot with wooden bullets. The author has
never been able to corroborate these stories, and no historical documentation has surfaced
to support such accounts. However, if such events were true, it is very likely that such
practices came from necessity as the Japanese garrisons on various islands became isolated
and were not resupplied as the war entered its latter stages. As ammunition stocks ran
low, it could reasonably be assumed that Japanese soldiers may have resorted to shooting
anything out of their weapon that would fire, and that may have included training ammu¬
nition loaded with wooden projectiles. U.S. Army Technical Manual TM 9-1985-5 (1953)
addressed the subject of Japanese munitions during World War II and referenced the
Japanese Type 38 6.5mm cartridge loaded with a wooden projectile. Japan is not the sole

104

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.37 (See color insert.) Swedish 6.5mm cartridges loaded with wooden projectiles.
(Image from author's collection.)

source for wooden projectile cartridges; they were produced by Sweden, France, Finland,
and the Warsaw Pact nations, among others. The primary uses for wooden or paper pro¬
jectiles were firing rifle grenades, short-range training applications, or for drill, salute, and
ceremonial purposes. Figure 2.37 shows cartridges loaded with wooden projectiles.

Hand Loads, Reloads, and Wildcats

Reloading and hand loading of ammunition is a common practice. In areas where it is legal
for individuals to manufacture their own ammunition, it is often done for the purposes of
economy, as it is often cheaper to purchase the individual components and manufacture or
remanufacture ammunition versus buying new factory-loaded ammunition, particularly
for the avid shooter. Reloading is also done when the end user has very particular specifica¬
tions in mind that are not available through ordinary commercial channels, such as bull’s-
eye and competition shooters. Another reason for reloading is to manufacture archaic or
obsolete calibers that are no longer available and remaining stocks have either dried up or
transitioned to collector interest. The obvious reason for hand loading or reloading in areas
where ammunition is heavily restricted or prohibited is to circumvent such restrictions.
Given the state of the art in reloading equipment, it is possible for an individual to produce
ammunition on a mass scale.

Many who reload ammunition use salvaged casings collected from gun ranges; how¬
ever, it is possible to purchase entirely new, unfired casings to load. In fact, many muni¬
tions producers sell the individual components required for the hand loader or reloader
to either make new ammunition from virgin components or to reuse fired casings when
manufacturing serviceable ammunition. When using fired casings, the reloader inspects
and prepares the casings; procures powder, primers, and projectiles; and goes about reas¬
sembling the components into functional ammunition. Many professional reloaders pride
themselves on the shiny, factory-new appearance, and the cleaning process can be a closely
guarded secret.

Ammunition Cartridges

105

When encountering reloaded ammunition, the head stamps in the sampling provided
can be varied, depending entirely on whether the loader used new casings or remanufac¬
tured fired casings. Another clue that the cartridges are reloads is that the seated projectile
is inconsistent with those used by the original manufacturer. Reloaded ammunition can
also exhibit signs that it has been fired more than once, such as burrs, aberrations, or other
abnormalities associated with repeated chambering and firing of casings. Plastic cartridge
boxes may be used to contain reloads; generic cartridge boxes or even factory boxes with
plastic cartridge inserts have also been refilled with reloads.

Factory remanufactured ammunition typically takes military- or government-sourced
ammunition that has failed inspection, is a production overrun, or is taken out of service
because of age or obsolescence. Such ammunition is purchased and “demilled,” a process
where the cartridges are disassembled and separated into serviceable and unserviceable
components. The serviceable components are then remanufactured back into ammuni¬
tion. According to a report by the U.S. General Accounting Office, dated June 30, 1999, in
response to a congressional inquiry into U.S. civilian acquisition of military-sourced .50
BMG (12.7x99mm) ammunition,

Talon (the government contractor in question) separates the round and discards the primer.
The remaining components can then be (1) sold for scrap, (2) used to manufacture recondi¬
tioned ammunition (with a new primer), or (3) sold on the civilian market for customers who
reload their own ammunition using the brass casing, projectile, and propellant (gunpowder)
components. (Hast 1999)

A common practice within commercial manufacturers who produce finished ammu¬
nition is to obtain components from other commercial producers or to outsource ammu¬
nition production when demands cannot be met. Consequently, it is not uncommon to
encounter ammunition sold under a certain name yet manufactured by some other firm,
and this practice extends to projectiles, casings, and primers as well as loaded ammunition
cartridges. Certain companies specialize specifically in manufacturing only components
and do not manufacture finished cartridges, or they may produce small lots only on special
order, preferring instead to sell their product to another manufacturer.

Wildcat ammunition is the term applied to ammunition that is not readily available
through routine channels of commerce. In this context, the term routine commerce refers
to the ability to acquire ammunition from any typical and generally accessible source
such as a gun shop, sporting goods store, hardware store, or other physical outlets that
sell cartridges. The proliferation of the Internet has stretched the definition somewhat,
as the manufacturers of a wildcat load can be contacted with relative ease. However, this
should not be taken to mean that such ammunition is readily accessible by means of rou¬
tine commerce. Wildcat ammunition is typically characterized by its relative unavailabil¬
ity by virtue of there being few, often singular, sources to obtain said cartridges, and it is
often produced in very small amounts, frequently by a gunsmith or hand loader. Wildcat
ammunition is generally derived from a well-known cartridge, but various parameters
of the host cartridge have been adjusted. Many wildcat cartridges draw their influence
from existing stock with recognized paternity. Casings are redrawn and redimensioned to
change the shoulder geometry or the neck diameter, or they are shortened or lengthened.
Wildcat ammunition is often of a completely unknown caliber that is being researched for
potential military or commercial application, or simply for novelty or personal research.

106

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

When dealing with potential hand-loaded, reloaded, or wildcat ammunition, the
investigator is cautioned that the quality of the ammunition is entirely dependent upon the
ability of the person who created the load. Shooting such ammunition creates the strong
possibility of an accident occurring from an overpressure load or one that is otherwise out
of specification. Firearms manufacturers strongly discourage the use of such ammunition,
and generally the use of it will void any warranties. If ammunition is encountered that is
suspected to originate outside of commercial sources, it should be treated as suspect and
not used for testing or investigative purposes until it can be researched sufficiently to allay
any safety concerns. However, there may be situations involving archaic firearms where no
other alternative exists.

Caliber Interchangeability

A potentially fatal mistake that is often made is the presumption that cartridges of close
designations or similar dimensions are interchangeable. This is certainly not the case.
There are a great many firearms that will chamber multiple calibers of cartridges; how¬
ever, the majority of firearms are chambered for a single caliber of cartridge only. There
are two guiding principles: chamber size and pressure load. The chamber dimensions of a
firearm indicate how wide and how long a chamber is. A cartridge that is either oversized
or undersized for the given chamber will result in a hazardous condition, either because
(a) an undersized cartridge will result in an insufficient gas check or seal, causing potential
casing rupture and damage to the firearm, or (b) in the case of an oversized cartridge, the
inability of the action to close entirely, also creating a hazardous situation if the action can
be closed enough to permit the firearm to discharge.

Firearms chambered for a particular caliber are designed to handle standardized
pressures for that particular round as established by SAAMI and CIP.* Both institutions
identify suitable cartridge interchangeabilities. Even in those instances where there is rea¬
sonable interchangeability between cartridges based on overall dimensions, the pressure
created may not be advisable for a particular firearm. This is especially true with older
firearms designed for black powder versus smokeless powder. In the transitional era, when
both powders were common, firearms designed for use with smokeless or modern gun¬
powder were clearly marked as such to avoid confusion.

Occasionally, the difference is very subtle. The .223 Remington and the 5.56x45mm
demonstrate a dimensional interchangeability that poses two different challenges. The
5.56x45mm is based on the commercial .223 Remington cartridge; 5.56x45mm is the
metric dimension and is used in the military designation of that cartridge. The principal
difference between the two lies in the casing dimension. The 5.56x45mm cartridge has a
slightly thicker casing wall, as it is designed to be fired at a higher pressure due to the dif¬
ferent powder formulation per military specification. The differences are slight, but they
are present. Firearms that are chambered for the commercial .223 may not be tolerant of
the 5.56 cartridge to the extent that it affects the reliable cycling of the firearm. To add

SAAMI is the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers Institute, Inc. CIP is the Permanent
International Commission for Firearms Testing. SAAMI is based in the United States, and CIP is based
in Europe. Both concern themselves with ammunition safety standards, including safe pressure loads for
cartridges.

Ammunition Cartridges

107

another dimension to this interchangeability issue, commercially chambered arms may
not have a barrel rifling profile that is ideally suited for the projectile being fired. Users are
cautioned to ensure they are using the proper ammunition that is specifically called for on
the firearm being used.

Although firearms are marked to chamber a specific cartridge, it is not uncommon
to find that many firearms will fire multiple calibers. The most significant risk comes
from similarly dimensioned cartridges loaded to different pressures that may exceed the
firearm’s ability to safely fire them. A common mistake along this line is attempting to
interchange .380 ACP (9x17mm) and 9mm Makarov (9x18mm) cartridges. Although
dimensionally similar, there is enough of a dissimilarity to create a hazardous condition.
Handguns chambered in .40 S&W can chamber 9x19mm cartridges, which usually results
in a functional failure after discharge. The 9mm casing will swell and will likely rupture
because the chamber is oversized relative to the casing diameter. This scenario usually
entails field stripping the gun to effect the repair. A .357 SIG Auto can be fired in .40 S&W
pistols, although the accuracy suffers greatly beyond very short ranges.

Revolvers are more often capable of chambering multiple calibers than auto pistols,
simply by design. If the cylinder can accommodate the length of the cartridge and the cali¬
ber is such that it will fit snugly into the cylinder, then that revolver likely can safely handle
that cartridge. The U.S. Army Model 1917 revolvers manufactured by Smith & Wesson
and Colt are one such example. These revolvers were based on commercial designs made
by their respective companies during that period. Colt used the New Service revolver, and
Smith & Wesson rechambered the N-frame Second Model Hand Ejector revolver. Due to
an acute shortage of Colt’s Model 1911 to supply the growing demands of the U.S. Army
for World War I, both companies were contracted to supply their respective revolvers. Both
revolvers were chambered in .45 ACP; however, this necessitated the use of “half-moon
clips” due to the rim design of the .45 ACP casing. Since the .45 ACP was designed for use
in an automatic handgun, the casing was rimless to facilitate feeding, extraction, and ejec¬
tion from the firearm. The moon clip, which joined a series of cartridges together, typically
three or six, allowed all the spent casings to be ejected from the revolver cylinder simulta¬
neously. Without the use of a moon clip, ejection would not be possible because, without
a rim, there is no surface for the ejector in the cylinder to interact with. As an expedient
measure, the .45 Auto Rim was developed specifically for use with the U.S. 1917 revolvers.
Dimensionally, these cartridges were exactly the same as the .45 ACP, save for the intro¬
duction of a full rim to allow the cartridge to seat in the cylinder and properly eject without
the use of a moon clip. The .45 Auto Rim has been out of production for many years, but it
can be found as collectible ammunition.

Firearms chambered in .38 Special can chamber .380 Center Fire, .38 Short Colt, and
.38 Long Colt. A firearm chambered in .44 S&W Special (often just referenced as .44 Special)
can accept cartridges in .44 Bull Dog, .44 Russian, .44 S&W American, and .44 Webley.
Many firearms are marked to indicate that they can accept multiple cartridges, such as the
Winchester Model 9422, the classic Model 94 lever-action rifle chambered in .22. The Model
94 is fed cartridges from an under-barrel tubular magazine. It will fire .22 Long and .22
Long Rifle cartridges, but can also accept the .22 Short cartridge. However, the Model 9422
that is chambered for .22 Magnum is not intended to accept any other .22 cartridge.

Cartridge interchangeability within firearms is dependent upon the dimensions and
pressures created by the cartridges in question. Projectiles are arranged by class, that is, a
grouping of objects that share the same general characteristics, such as .45-class projectiles,

108

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

which would include the various .45-class cartridges. Other .45 cartridges that have existed
include .45 Auto Rim, .45 Long Colt, .455 Webley, and the .455 Auto Pistol. In 2006, Glock
announced that they had developed a new cartridge and released several new pistol mod¬
els chambered in the round. The new cartridge, designated .45 GAP (Glock Auto Pistol),
was designed to mimic the venerable .45 ACP by using the same projectile dimensions—
but with a slightly reduced casing length—to produce a cartridge that was somewhat
shorter but reportedly had nearly identical ballistic performance. An article that, in part,
addressed interchangeabilities of cartridges appeared in the newsletter of the Association
of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners. The article outlined a series of revolvers chambered
for the .32 S&W cartridge that would either satisfactorily or loosely fit the .32 A.P. Ctg.‘ Of
eight revolvers tested from various manufacturers, all of them were found to chamber a
multitude of brands of .32 A.P. cartridges (Smith 1971). There are firearms readily capable
of chambering multiple calibers safely.

At the outset of the era of the self-contained cartridge, there was, for a brief period of
time, a clear distinction between handgun and long-gun cartridges. For the most part, this
distinction was made on the basis of the physical size of the cartridge. The full-sized rifle
cartridge could be of such physical size that it would not be practical to produce a handgun
of the size required to chamber it. Likewise, the high-pressure load of such a cartridge may
have exceeded a smaller-framed firearm’s ability to safely fire it. Conversely, physically
smaller handgun cartridges might have proven counterproductive in rifles, given their
relatively limited performance as compared to rifle cartridges.

In the history of modern cartridges, there does not exist any real exclusivity to
identifying a particular cartridge as being dedicated for a handgun versus a long gun.
Interchangeability of long-gun and handgun cartridges started as the American Civil
War ended with the emergence of the drawn-brass-cased, self-contained cartridge. Many
revolvers were chambered for the same cartridges as the rifles of the day, simplifying the
logistics for individuals, who could then use a single cartridge in their sidearm and rifle.
Examples of such “cowboy calibers” include the .44-40 and the .32-20 Winchester (also
known as the .32 WCF Winchester Centerfire).

Rifles chambered in more modern handgun calibers such as the .357 Magnum and
the .44 Magnum are quite common. Conversely, there are numerous handguns cham¬
bered in modern rifle cartridges such as .223 and 7.62x39mm. It is often the case with
handguns chambered in these two calibers to be pistolized versions of the rifle, accom¬
plished by manufacturing the firearm without a shoulder stock or with the provision for
attaching one, thereby redefining the firearm as a handgun instead of a long gun. f Even
this approach bears exception. Thompson Center, a manufacturer of rifles, handguns, and
muzzle loaders, produces a line of handguns called the Contender chambered in rifle cal¬
ibers such as .45-70 Government, .30-30 Winchester, .375 Winchester, .222 Remington,
.223 Remington, and .35 Remington, to name a few. These handguns are physically quite
large, and the Thompson Contenders enjoy caliber interchangeability by simply removing
the barrel from the frame and replacing it with a new barrel of a different caliber.

The author surmises that the .32 A.P. Ctg. referred to in the article is also known as the .32 ACP car¬
tridge, where A.P. would abbreviate the term Automatic Pistol.

+ The definitions of handgun and long gun vary due to the various laws and requirements established in
different venues.

Ammunition Cartridges

109

The .22 class (.22 Short, .22 Long Rifle, .22 Magnum) is probably the most prolific
example of this ammunition interchangeability between long guns and handguns. There
are innumerable models of all types of handguns and rifles that chamber these cartridges.
Quite often, the same model firearm can chamber either .22 Shorts or .22 Long Rifles; how¬
ever, due to dimensional differences, .22 Magnum generally will not interchange. These
technical reasons do not prevent various cartridges from being categorized as handgun
or rifle cartridges, but these classifications have no technical basis, instead relying on the
traditional application of such cartridges.

A common myth surrounding ammunition is that only ammunition made by a cer¬
tain manufacturer will fit that same manufacturer’s firearms. While it is certainly true that
companies such as Remington, Winchester, and Smith & Wesson either did or currently do
manufacture firearms and cartridges, it is not to imply that only their specific brand of car¬
tridge would chamber in their particular firearm. For example, Remington manufactures
assorted cartridges of all types, but a .45 ACP cartridge they manufacture will work in any
firearm chambered for that specific cartridge. When viewing the head stamp, be careful
not to confuse the manufacturer abbreviation with a cartridge that is identified by a name.
One such example could be head stamped “R-P.38 S&W,” meaning that Remington/Peters
manufactured this particular cartridge, but it is .38 Smith & Wesson caliber. Truthfully,
many cartridges were developed by companies using the prior art of other companies,
which resulted in many similar cartridges.

Cartridge interchangeability and the inherent simplification of logistics has become
a sales point for companies seeking to sell the simplified logistics of a common caliber
between handguns and long guns. The Belgian gun maker Fabrique Nationale (FN) intro¬
duced their proprietary 5.7x28mm cartridge for the Five-seveN handgun as well as the
PS-90 carbine and P-90 submachine gun. FN has produced an entire line of 5.7 cartridges
that suit any application: military, law enforcement, and civilian. In the United States, FN
restricts sale of certain 5.7 cartridges to military, law enforcement, and government cus¬
tomers. The SS190 cartridge is a ball-type projectile designed to defeat soft body armor. The
projectile has a black tip and its sale is restricted. The L191 cartridge is a tracer, identified
by a red tip, and its sale is restricted. The SS192 cartridge was loaded with a hollow-point-
type projectile and was not colored coded. The SB193 is a subsonic cartridge, identified
by its white-tipped projectile; like the SS192, its sale is restricted. The SS195 cartridge is
a lead-free projectile; there is no color marking on the projectile, and it is not subject to
restrictions on sale. The SS196 is loaded with a Hornady-supplied V-Max projectile weigh¬
ing 40 grains and having a colored ballistic tip. The SS197SR is a blue-tipped projectile and
is available commercially through Federal Cartridge Company. The SS198 is another lead-
free offering; it has a green tipped projectile, and its sale is restricted. A blank cartridge is
also available without restriction. It is identified by its red conical projectile.

The German gun maker Heckler & Koch has developed a 4.6x30mm cartridge and
markets a submachine gun chambered for it, the MP-7. H&K is reported to have developed
a handgun chambered in the 4.6mm; however, it is yet to come to market. Both the 5.7mm
and the 4.6mm cartridges represent the concept of the intermediate cartridge taken to
a new level (see Figure 2.16). Both cartridges feature very small projectiles propelled to
exceptionally high velocities. They both have the overt appearance of scaled-down rifle
cartridges: Both are center-fire, bottleneck-shaped casings. The apparent intent to develop
these small cartridges was to equip a new generation of firearms called Personal Defense
Weapons (PDWs). The PDW is akin to a submachine gun or a carbine and is designed to

110

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

provide an individual with very compact firepower that is greater than that provided by
a handgun yet more manageable than either the traditional carbine or submachine gun.

The same model firearm may be chambered for any number of cartridges. The
Remington 870 shotgun has been chambered in gauges 12, 16, 20, and 28, and in .410.
Regardless of the gauge, it is still the Remington 870. The Remington 700 has been made
in a variety of calibers: .223, .243 Win, .270 Win, 7mm-08, .300 Win Magnum, .30-06, and
.308. The Model 1911 and 1911A1 pistols have been made not only in the venerable .45 ACP,
but also in .38 Super, .22 Long Rifle, and 10mm Norma, as well as other assorted oddball
calibers.

Identification Markings

Cartridges of both military and commercial origin contain markings and other means
of identification. These markings are made up of head stamps and color codes. It is not
uncommon to encounter surplus military ammunition almost anywhere. Military ammu¬
nition or ammunition made to military specification may have a color-coded projectile or
a color-coded annulus to aid the user in identifying what the cartridge is. These colored
tips should not be confused with polymer or metal inserts in the tips of projectiles that are
used by companies such as Nosier or Hornady. These colored polymer tips are inserted
into the cavity of hollow point or OTM projectiles to maintain their ballistic performance
as well as ensuring smooth and consistent feeding through the firearm, whose feed ramp
may have been optimized for feeding pointed-tip projectiles. The world’s militaries have
long marked projectiles with various colors to identify that particular projectile as being
ball, practice, armor piercing, tracer, blank, dummy, and so forth. These color codes were
not standardized between nations, and even within nations the codes changed over time.
The two prevalent standards, NATO and Warsaw Pact, both sought to standardize mark¬
ings between members so that ammunition produced by any partner nation could be rec¬
ognized by other partners. Even in the era of NATO and Warsaw Pact standards, many
nations still chose to use internal markings, but this practice has gradually faded away to
conform with more internationally recognized markings. See Figures 2.38-2.40 for exam¬
ples of color-coded projectiles.

Ill

Figure 2.38 (See color insert.) U.S. Military .50 BMG (12.7x99mm) color-coding scheme.
(From U.S. Army Technical Manual TM 9-1300-200, 1993.)

112

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 2.39 (See color insert.) U.S. Marine Lance Corporal Richard Mueller mans a turret-
mounted M2.50 machine gun. The ammunition load consists of armor-piercing incendiary
(gray bands) and armor-piercing tracer (red over gray bands) cartridges. (Image from U.S. Marine
Corps; photographer Gunnery Sgt. Scott Dunn, USMC.)

113

High-pressure test (HPT) Match

Armor-piercing (AP) Ball, Frangible

Dummy Duplex

Rifle grenade

Figure 2.40 (See color insert.) U.S. military 7.62x51mm color-coding scheme. (From U.S.
Army Technical Manual TM 9-1300-200, 1993.)

Cartridge Head Stamps

Cartridge Head Stamp Overview

A cartridge head stamp is the marking on the base of a cartridge casing that surrounds
the primer cup (see Figure 3.1). In the case of a rim-fire cartridge, the head stamp covers
the entire casing base. The marking may be pressed into the casing, or it may be a raised
marking. There has never been a universal standard or protocol that has been observed
with respect to what should be marked on a cartridge; therefore, great variations can be
expected. One must remember that ammunition manufacture can be the enterprise of a pri¬
vate company, a state-controlled enterprise, or a governmentally operated arsenal. It must
also be considered that commercial manufacturers may produce military ammunition or
that government-produced ammunition maybe released into the commercial market. There
are instances, however rare, of completely anonymous cartridges that bear no markings
whatsoever, as none were ever affixed. The marking practices of the manufacturer or nation
of origin may reveal any or all of the following information by deciphering the head stamp:

• Manufacturer (by name, initials, or factory code)

• Subcontractor involvement in production

• Casing or projectile material

• Dimensions or chambering (imperial, metric, or gauge)

• Ammunition production lot number

• Date, usually the last one or two digits of the year produced

• National crests or emblems

• Peculiarities of the individual cartridge under inspection, such as match or com¬
petition grade, or material supplier subcontractors

Head Stamp Elements

To assist in identification, a head stamp can be broken into elements based on their posi¬
tion on the casing. Due to space considerations, there can only be a finite number of ele¬
ments and information that can be part of the head stamp. To arrange a casing, orient the
casing so that the letters, numbers, or other characters are upright and readable around the
circumference of the casing.

There are literally thousands of different head stamps in existence, and deciphering
them is truly a subject all unto itself. Given the finite number of letter-and-number combi¬
nations, there are duplicate head stamps that have appeared that could be associated with
two or more different manufacturers. It is not uncommon for a single manufacturer to use
more than one head stamp, changing styles or legends over time.

Head stamps can be used to identify ammunition beyond the mere manufacturer; differ¬
ent type sets, spacing, and placement of information can indicate that a particular cartridge

115

116

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 3.1 A .45-70 Government cartridge head stamp. The "F 10 87" indicates that this
cartridge was manufactured by the Frankford Arsenal in Philadelphia, PA, circa October 1887.
(Image from author's collection.)

was manufactured at a particular plant, during a particular period of time, only used on cer¬
tain caliber cartridges, or some other information that would otherwise be transparent to the
reader but would have value internally. A head stamp alone may be somewhat misleading;
the use of certain letters, numbers, characters, or other icons and ideograms may not rep¬
resent the actual manufacturer. Manufacturers often produce cartridges under contract for
other companies, who market the ammunition as their own. Ammunition destined for mili¬
tary consumers will often only have a manufacturer stamp and a date or lot code number,
whereas ammunition destined for civilian use is typically easier to discern, having relatively
complete manufacturer information as well as caliber designation for ease of identification.

There are innumerable head stamps in existence, and proper identification of eccentric
or uncommon markings can be difficult. Whenever unfamiliar ammunition is encoun¬
tered, it is recommended that these exhibits be cataloged and packaging materials also be
taken, if available. All crime labs dealing with firearms and ammunition should seek to
establish an ammunition reference library that should be actively cultivated.

All forms of alphabet are used to head stamp ammunition: Roman numerals, Hebrew,
the Arabic alphabet, Oriental characters, Cyrillic, and others have been used in addition to
the English alphabet, obviously presenting some indication of where the ammunition may
have been produced or of the intended customer.

Counterfeit Head Stamps

Counterfeit head stamps have appeared, providing completely erroneous information to the
investigator. Ordinarily, counterfeit head stamps emerge from sources outside First World
manufacturers. There are several instances of counterfeit head stamps used on ammunition
originating from China. One instance of this involves 7.62x51mm cartridges produced in
China, probably in the late 1960s into the early 1970s and head stamped to mimic British
sources (see Figure 3.2). The observed cartridges are marked with the NATO cross, L2A2,
and RG for Radway Green. The deception is revealed when the materials used are taken
into consideration. The projectile and casing are produced from brass-plated steel, not the
ordnance-grade brass used in British-produced, NATO-accepted cartridges. The projectile

Cartridge Head Stamps

117

Figure 3.2 (See color insert.) A study of two Chinese-sourced cartridge head stamps. On the
left is a typical example of 7.62x51mm ammunition of Chinese origin using block characters.
The 61 indicates the factory number; 92 indicates that this cartridge was manufactured in
1992. The example on the right, also 7.62x51mm, is a forgery. The head stamp indicates produc¬
tion by Royal Ordnance Radway Green in 1960, complete with NATO standard cross. L2A2
was the British military designation for the 7.62x51mm NATO ball cartridge. Both examples
are of similar construction; the casing is copper-plated steel. (Image from author's collection.)

jacketing is also inconsistent with British manufacture. The reasoning behind this forgery
is unknown; the most obvious reason put forth is to supply ammunition to a user and
obscure the true source. Examples of this ammunition have been observed in Africa, have
been sold commercially in the United States, and likely exist elsewhere. Another counter¬
feit cartridge, also believed to have originated in China, was .30 carbine cartridge marked
“LC” for Lake City, and “52” and “53” for production years 1952—53. As is the case with
the markings depicted in Figure 3.2, when these are compared with actual examples of U.S.
military .30 cartridges, the differences become obvious.

Rim-Fire Head Stamps

Rim-fire cartridges can be particularly elusive in identification, even provided the presence of
a head stamp. Generally, rim-fire cartridges provide very limited information, usually some
form of character, trademark, a single letter or digit, or an icon. Occasionally an entire name
will be marked or a discernible abbreviation such as CCI (Cascade Cartridge International),
PMC (Eldorado Cartridge Company, just like center-fire head stamp, however PMC also
used a diamond), a stylized W for Western Cartridge, and Rem for Remington. Prior to
1983, Remington Arms used a U to identify their .22 cartridges, then changing to the Rem
marking. A delta appears on commercial .22 Long Rifle (5.6mm) ammunition that origi¬
nated from China. Formerly, it was common for department store brands to be manufac¬
tured by another company but marked for retail outlets such as Kmart, Montgomery Ward,
or Sears. Sears products were stamped S, and Montgomery Ward with MW, although the
ammunition was actually manufactured by another firm. Older .22 ammunition can prove
to be especially elusive in definitively identifying the manufacturer, as production was often
contracted to other firms and vanity labeled for the retailer.

NATO Identification Marking

Within NATO, there are approved suppliers that furnish the partners with ammunition
that meets the requisite standards and thus can be used by anyone within the organization.

118

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

The suppliers within the NATO supply structure are immediately recognizable by their
head stamp and the bearing of the NATO cross (©). These organizations may also produce
commercial ammunition and use the same head stamp. The NATO Stock Number, or NSN,
will appear on bulk packaging for approved ammunition. The caveat to this, as discussed in
Chapter 2, is that NATO-stamped cartridge casings are often reloaded or remanufactured
into new cartridges for commercial resale. Thus the mere presence of a NATO marking
does not definitively indicate that first-hand military ammunition was used, nor does it
imply that military ammunition may have been subject to diversion from stockpiles onto
the commercial market, as such ammunition is sold off as surplus, contract production
overrun, or cartridges that were rejected by inspectors and sold off as “seconds.”

U.S. Government Arsenal Markings

Ammunition produced by ordnance plants owned by the United States from the late 1800s
to present times are marked using two- and three-digit letters to denote which facility
produced the cartridge, such as the example illustrated in Figure 3.1. Numerous ordnance
plants were constructed across the United States, especially during the Second World War,
and operated by the government solely for the purpose of meeting military demands. In
the years following the war, these plants were gradually phased out, and the U.S. govern¬
ment increasingly outsourced defense munitions needs to private contractors. Many of
these plants were involved in producing munitions other than small-arms cartridges, so
they are not often encountered. By virtue of the scale of manufacture, and even though
much time has passed, these cartridges still appear. The practice observed by these plants
called for the stamping of a one-digit year, in addition to the one- or two-digit ordnance
plant abbreviation. The Lake City Army Ammunition Plant, currently operated under con¬
tract by ATK, is the last remaining U.S. military arsenal still in operation. The appearance
of Lake City marked brass casings itself does not indicate that the particular cartridge is
of military origin. Casings made at Lake City are used by other companies to manufacture
commercial ammunition. Federal Cartridge Corporation, itself a holding of ATK, uses
Lake City-marked casings. Surplus or reject brass is sold and reloaded, or new brass is
purchased and used to manufacture new ammunition. In addition, former U.S. military-
produced brass has been used extensively by reloaders to produce new ammunition.

Figures 3.3-3.6 show head stamps for a wide range of cartridges. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 list
head stamps for U.S. plants producing ordnance and ammunition, respectively.

Process of the Identification of a Cartridge,

Cartridge Casing, or Projectile

The majority of cartridges that are encountered can be readily identified, but some will
prove more elusive than others. When attempting to identify an unknown cartridge, there
are several pieces of information that must be gathered from the specimen:

• Physical dimensions

• Length of cartridge case (inches and millimeters)

• Overall length of cartridge, to include projectile (inches and millimeters)

• Diameter of projectile (inches and millimeters)

Cartridge Head Stamps

119

Figure 3.3 An assortment of 9x19mm cartridge head stamps. Top center: Remington Union
Metallic Cartridge; top left: Winchester Cartridge Corp., NATO accepted, 2005 production;
top right: Cascade Cartridge International aluminum casing (NR for "not reloadable"); center:
Federal Cartridge; lower left: Speer +P cartridge,- lower right: Winchester. (Image from author's
collection.)

Figure 3.4 (See color insert.) An assortment of 5.56x45mm/.223 cartridge head stamps. Top
row from left: Precision Metal Corp.; Poongsan Corp. Korea (October 1981); Federal Cartridge
(2005); Hornady Manufacturing; International Cartridge Corp.; Hornady Manufacturing.
Bottom row from left: Lake City Ordnance Plant (2002); Lake City Ordnance Plant (nickel
plated) (2005); Lake City Ordnance Plant (1975); Winchester Cartridge Corp. (2001); Barnaul
Cartridge Plant Russia; Wolf Performance Ammunition. (Image from author's collection.)

120

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 3.5 (See color insert.) An assortment of commonly encountered 7.62x39mm cartridge
head stamps. Top row from left: Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant Russia (2000);
Barnaul Cartridge Plant Russia (newer logo); Barnaul Cartridge Plant Russia (earlier logo);
Barnaul Cartridge Plant Russia (1995); Tulammo Russia; Federal State Enterprise Production
Amursk Cartridge Plant Vympel. Middle row from left: Four varieties of Wolf Performance
Ammunition head stamps; Igman, Bosnia-Herzegovina (1981). Bottom row from left: Klimovsk
Specialized Ammunition Plant (1993); Pretoria Metal Pressing (1988); China State Factory 71
(1991); China State Factory 31 (1971); Winchester Cartridge. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 3.6 (See color insert.) An assortment of 7.6x51mm/.308 cartridge head stamps. Top
row from left: Wolf Performance Ammunition; China State Factory 61; Giraites Ginkluotes
Gamykla (2004); Federal Cartridge. Bottom row from left: Gevelot S.A.; Fake City Ordnance
Plant; Remington Peters. (Image from author's collection.)

Cartridge Head Stamps

121

Table 3.1 U.S. Ordnance Plant Head Stamps

Alleghany Ordnance Plant

Denver Ordnance Plant

DEN

Des Moines Ordnance Plant

Evansville Ordnance Plant

Evansville Ordnance Plant (Chrysler)

Evansville Ordnance Plant (Chrysler-Sunbeam)

ECS

Eau Claire Ordnance Plant

Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia

FA, F, A

Frankford Arsenal (Laboratory)

FAL

Joliet Arsenal

Kelly-Springfield Tire Company (Alleghany Ordnance Plant Contractor)

Lake City Ordnance Plant

Lowell Ordnance Plant

Milwaukee Ordnance Plant

Saint Louis Ordnance Plant

Twin Cities Ordnance Plant

Utah Ordnance Plant

U, UT

Table 3.2 U.S. Ammunition Producer Head Stamps

3-D Ammunition Inc.

IMPACT 3D

Alexander Arms

ALF.X-A

Allen & Wheelock

A-W

American Ammunition, Miami, FL

A-MERC

American Ballistics, Marietta, GA

A B T

American Eagle (division of Federal Cartridge)

AM. EAGLE

Am-Tech Inti.

AMTECH

AMRON Corporation, Waukesha, WI

AMRON

Anderson Munitions, Inc., Memphis, TN

AMI

B-West

B-West a

Barrett Firearms

BARRETT

BBM Corp., West Springfield, MA

BBM

B&E Cartridge Co.

Black Hills Ammunition

BHA

Blazer

CCI

Browning Arms Co., Morgan, UT

BROWNING

Burnside Rifle Company

BRSD

Buffalo Rock Shooting Supply

BUFFALO ROCK

Canyon Cartridge Co., Albertson, NY

CCC

Cascade Cartridge Inti.

CCI

Clinton Cartridge Co.

C.C.Co.

Colts Patent Firearms

COLT

Connecticut Cartridge Corp.

CCC

Corbon

C-B, CORBON, GLASER

Creedmoor Cartridge Co.

C.C.C.

D.C. Sage & Company

SAGE

D&S Manufacturing, Inc.

D&S

122

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Table 3.2 (Continued) U.S. Ammunition Producer Head Stamps

Denver Bullets, Inc.

Delta Defense Frangible Ammunition
DoubleTap Ammunition
Eldorado Cartridge Corp.

Estate Cartridge Co.

Extreme Shock Munitions
Firearms Unlimited
Federal Cartridge Corp.

Fiocchi of America
Frontier Cartridge Co.

Georgia Arms (Master Cartridge)
Greenville Ammunition Supply (GAS)
Gromak Inc.

Guilford Engineering Associates Inc.

G&S Munitions
H&S Ammunition
Hall & Hubbard
Harrington Ammunition Inc.

Hornady

High Performance Cartridge Corp.

Horner Munitions
Hydra Shok Corp.

Hunting Shack
Independence (CCI)

Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
International Cartridge Corp.

J. B. Wise
KTW Inc.

Kilgore Ammunition Products
Longbow

Liberty Cartridge Co.

M&D Munitions
Magtech

Master Cartridge Co.

Maxim Munitions Corp.

Midway Arms, Inc.

Montgomery Ward & Co.

National Brass & Copper Tube Co.

National Cartridge Co.

Nevins Ammunition, Inc.

Ready Products Corp., Irving, CA
Remington Arms

Remington Arms/Peters Cartridge Co.
Remington/Union Metallic Cartridge Corp.
Robin Hood Ammunition Co.

Peters Cartridge Co.

Precision Metal

DENVER

DFA-NT b

DOUBLETAP

ELD, STARFIREELD

ECC

EXT SHK
F-U

F, FC, FCC, FEDERAL

F.O.A., FIOCCHI USA

FRONTIER

GA ARMS, MASTER

Starline or Speer marked brass is used

GROMAK

GEA

G&S

H&S

H&H

HAI or HARRINGTON
HORNADY, FRONTIER, HMC
HI-PER

H&R (not associated with gun maker)

HYDRA-SHOK

HSM

INEL

ICC

Wise

KTW

KFA

L B-NTF C

LIBERTY

M&D

CBC, MRP

MASTER

MAXIM

MIDWAY

M - W

N, NATIONAL
NEVINS
A-ZOOM
REM, RA
RP.R-P

REM-UMC, UMC, U.M.C., UMC-UEE, RyU, U
R.H.

PC, PCC, PETERS
PMC

Cartridge Head Stamps

123

Table 3.2 (Continued) U.S. Ammunition Producer Head Stamps

D.C. Sage & Co.

Savage Arms Corp.

Scharch Manufacturing
Sherwood International Export Corp.
Smith & Wesson
Smith & Wesson/Fiocchi
Standard Cartridge Co.

Starline
Speer Ammo

Superior Ammunition, Inc.

United States Cartridge Co.

Union Cap & Chemical Co.

Wahib Arms
Western Cartridge Corp.

Winchester Repeating Arms

Winchester/Western
Zero Ammunition Co.

SAGE

S.A.Co., S.A Corp., S.A. Corp, SAV, SAVAGE

TOP BRASS

SIEC IK d

S&W

S&W-F e

see

*_* *f

SPEER

SUPERIOR

U.S., US, U.S.C.C.O.

U.C.C.Co

WAHIB

WCC, W C C, W.C.C.Co, SUPER SPEED, WESTERN
H, WINCHESTER, W, WIN, WR, W.R.A, W.R.A.,
WRA, W.R.A.Co., Super-X
W-W, W-W Super
ZERO

a B-West is an example of a vanity marked cartridge. B-West was not the manufacturer, but was a major
importer of Eastern Bloc arms. These cartridges were produced by Russian firms and sold by B-West.
b NT: nontoxic.
c NTF: nontoxic frangible.

d Sherwood cartridges were another example of offshore-sourced ammunition that was marked with a vanity
label. The actual manufacturer was Igman, as indicated by the IK.
e Not to be confused with caliber identifier, but S&W as manufacturer.

f In addition to Starline head-stamped brass, Starline produces vanity head stamps for other manufacturers.
Some manufacturers prefer to use brass head stamped with the twin stars and dash.

• Composition of materials used to construct casing

• Brass

• Steel

- Color

• Polymer

- Is the base or cap metallic?

• Paper

• Other material

• Ignition system

• Rim fire

• Center fire

- Boxer primed

- Berden primed

• Electric

• Pin fire

• Other or unknown

124

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

• Cartridge casing shape

• Straight-walled cylindrical casing

• Tapered casing (the diameter of the casing narrows as it approaches the neck)

• Bottleneck casing (the diameter of the casing narrows at the shoulders, creat¬
ing a well-defined neck)

• Shape of the base and rim

• Rimmed

• Rimless

• Rebated or reduced rim

• Belted

• Presence of a coating on the casing

• Presence or absence of a head stamp (If there is a head stamp, identify the charac¬
ters and note their relative positions to one another, using clock positions.)

• Roman numerals

• Hebrew characters

• Arabic characters

• Symbols such as stars, arrows, etc.

• Presence of a crimping mark around the circumference of the casing

• Projectile description, if present

• Round

• Pointed

• Flat

• Truncated

• Conical shaped

• Projectile jacketing material

• Bare lead, unjacketed

• Copper

• Steel, nickel, or other white metal

• Composite jacketing material such as nylon, Teflon, or polymer

• Jacketing characteristic

• Fully jacketed

• Semijacketed

• Unjacketed

• Gilded or plated

• Projectile type
. Ball

• Hollow point

• Open tip match (OTM)

• Wad cutter

• Semi-wad cutter

• Sabot

• Other (sketch appearance)

• Shot-shell pellet

• Colored bands or colored meplat

• Presence of cannelures on projectile

Cartridge Head Stamps

125

Using as much information as can possibly be obtained, it may be possible to research
the particular projectile back to a specific manufacturer, even if a casing is not recovered.
Unless there is something rather unusual about the projectile, a generic ball projectile may
be difficult to trace. On the other hand, hollow-point-type projectiles may not pose as
much of an issue. All factors must be considered: the caliber class, materials used, shape,
mass, even the documented performance of what occurred during the flight of the projec¬
tile until it came to rest.

Head Stamp and Manufacturing Practices for Selected Nations

The identification and marking practices of any nation is a subject all unto itself. Volumes
have been written on the single topic of World War II German ordnance production,
marking, and their coding system for domestic, partnered, and occupation plants. State-
controlled industries tend to maintain consistent marking practices, whereas private firms
tend to change more frequently. Changes in head-stamp markings may be subtle, such as
a slight change in the font, the positioning of the stampings, or the inclusion of dimples or
other seemingly insignificant additions that are meaningful to the factory. Since 2000, the
worldwide munitions industry has seen tremendous growth, but it has been consolidated
to a great degree. The consolidation within the industry has, for the most part, been virtu¬
ally transparent to the consumer, since most individual labels have survived during these
corporate acquisitions. It appears that most companies that have acquired others preferred
to take advantage of brand-name recognition and leave well enough alone. Thus it comes
as a surprise to many when they discover that their favorite cartridge company is actually
a holding of a larger conglomerate. Much the same can be said for the firearms industry
as well.

Albania

During the Cold War, Albania was a major repository for ammunition originating from
the Soviet Union and China, in addition to domestically produced munitions. Albania has
been the site of a number of accidents involving munitions stockpiles, and great invest¬
ment has been made to reduce the amount of stockpiled munitions stored in the country.
The state-operated arsenal, K.M. Polican, has produced 7.62x39mm cartridges, among
others. K.M. Polican identifies the 7.62x39mm as the M54, as opposed to the Soviet M43
designation. The arsenal uses the number 3 to identify itself on the casing head stamp.
The code 3 is marked at the 6 o’clock position, with the last two digits of the date at the 12
o’clock position. Albanian ammunition dating to at least as early as the mid-1980s used
brass cartridge casings.

Argentina

Production of armaments in Argentina was under the auspices of the Directorate of
Military Factories. Under the directorate, production was undertaken in various facilities
located throughout the country. Military cartridges have the manufacturer head stamp
positioned at the 12 o’clock position, and the stamp generally included the year by two or

126

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

four digits. The caliber designation may also be present. Since 1960, Argentina has gen¬
erally followed the standardized NATO color-marking system for identifying cartridge
types. Concorde was a commercial brand exported from Argentina, with the head stamp
OA. Charles Daley was another commercial brand that was manufactured in Argentina.
Both labels are also associated with manufacture in the Philippine Islands. The following
list shows the state factories and their respective head-stamp practices:

Fabrica Militar de Cartuchos San Francisco: FMMAP S.F. (1948); FMCSF (1954);
F.M. S.F. (1972)

Fabrica Militar de Municiones de Armas Portatiles: F.M.M.A.P. (1939-44); renamed
Fabrica Militar de Municiones de Armas Portatiles—Borghi: F.M.M.A.P. B (1944-
50); again renamed Fabrica Militar San Lorenzo: FMC SL (1950-55), F.M. S.L.
(1955-61); then renamed again to Fabrica Militar Luis Beltran: F.M. FLB (1961—
75), FLB (post-1958)

Industria Metalurgica y Plastica Argentina, Buenos Aires: I.M.P.A.

Australia

As part of the Commonwealth, Australia was able to erect arms factories in support of
the demand for ammunition during times of war. Commercially, Bertram Bullet Works
manufactures brass in archaic calibers for custom loading; it can be identified by the head
stamp BB. The product is exported, so it can be seen outside of Australia, especially in
areas where hand loading archaic cartridges does not present legal issues. Small Arms
Factory Melbourne was succeeded by Australian Defence Industries, which in turn was
absorbed by Thales Australia in 2006. When the Small Arms Factory Melbourne was suc¬
ceeded by Australian Defence Industries, the cartridge head stamp was switched from AF
to ADI. The ADI is stamped in the 12 o’clock position, and the two-digit year is at the 6
o’clock position. Thales has continued using the ADI head stamp. Thales Australia (part
of the Thales Group) manufactures 5.56x45mm and .50 BMG cartridges in Australia at its
Benalla factory for consumption by Australian Defence Forces as well as for export. Both
the 5.56 and the .50 live cartridges are designated as FI; the blank variants of both are des¬
ignated as F3. The 5.56mm F3A1 has a chemically blackened casing for ease of identifica¬
tion (Thales Group n.d.). Winchester has manufactured ammunition in Australia since the
late 1960s. For historical purposes, other arsenal head stamps are listed as follows:

Small Arms Ammunition Factory Melbourne: AF, AFF, MF
Small Arms Factory Number 1, Footscray: AIF, MF
Small Arms Factory Number 2, Footscray: MF2, MG
Small Arms Ammunition Factory Number 3, Hendon: MH
Small Arms Ammunition Factory Number 4, Hendon: MJ, MJB
Small Arms Ammunition Factory Number 5, Rocklea: MQ
Small Arms Ammunition Factory Number 6, Welshpool: MW
Small Arms Ammunition Factory Number 7, Salisbury: MS
Imperial Metal Works: IMI
Winchester Australia: Winchester, WCC

Cartridge Head Stamps

127

Austria

Austria has been a significant source of small-arms ammunition. A number of differ¬
ent manufacturers have appeared and disappeared during Austria’s politically turbulent
history. Austria started as the Austrian Empire, becoming Austria-Hungary in 1867.
At the end of the First World War in 1918, Austria-Hungary collapsed and became the
First Austrian Republic until it was annexed by Germany in 1938. Austria returned as
a sovereign nation in the postwar period. With the exception of Hirtenberger, the other
Austrian makers are archaic, most of them having faded from existence prior to World
War II. Historically, these makers focused on the standardized cartridges of the state in
its various political forms: the 8x56mm rimmed cartridge used by the Mannlicher M95
rifle, and the various handgun cartridges such as the 8mm Rast and Gasser, 8mm Roth-
Steyr, and 9mm (9x23mm) Steyr. Postwar, Hirtenberger became one of the preeminent
cartridge manufacturers in Europe and a major NATO supplier. RUAG Ammotec acquired
Hirtenberger in 2003, which was known at that time as Hirtenberger AG. Ammunition of
Austrian origin from before or during World War II seldom appears. A large quantity of
8x56Rmm cartridges dating from the late 1930s appeared on the U.S. commercial market
in the late 1980s. These cartridges were often confused with Mauser cartridges because of
the German markings on the cardboard boxes. Actually, it was German-manufactured
ammunition for the Austrian M95 Steyr rifle. Relevant head stamps are as follows:

Artilleriezeugsfabrik, Vienna: AZF

Giersig & Cie, Woellersdorf: W over W, or a crowned eagle

George Roth, Vienna: GR, or G.R.

Hirtenberger Zundhutchen und Metallwarenfabrik, Hirtenberg: H, I, HP, HR, H K
& C, W H P, X.

Keller & Company, Vienna: X K&C
Patronenfabrik, Eichtenworth Niederost: SOS
Manfred Weiss Patronenfabrik, Vienna: W, B and III

Bangladesh

The Bangladesh Ordnance Factories are operated under the auspices of the Bangladesh
Army. The complex itself, comprising five factories, is located near the capital city of
Dhaka in the township of Gazipur Cantonment. The organization states on its website
that it obtained defense technologies from China, Germany, Italy, Australia, Belgium, and
Austria (Bangladesh Ordnance Factories 2008). Head stamp BOF is observed; other ele¬
ments may include the caliber or two-digit year.

Belgium

Belgium has a long history and deep tradition of arms and munitions manufacture, and is
home to some of the most well-renowned names in the industry. Fabrique Nationale (FN)
remains one of the oldest continuous operating armaments producers in the world. FN
is part of the Herstal Group, which also includes Winchester as a holding. Commercial,
government, and military consumers use FN-manufactured ammunition and firearms.

128

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

FN has used various head stamps over the years, particularly FN, FNH, FNB, and H. In the
early 1990s Fabrique National entered into a relationship with Nexter/GIAT of France, pre¬
sumably to supply French military small arms ammunition needs, using head stamp FNB
which, according to some sources, identified Nexter as the manufacturer. Code “ch” was
used during the German occupation. Other markings may appear to indicate the type of
projectile that is loaded, caliber designation, and a two-year date. Stamping practices can
vary by customer preference, since FN supplies ammunition to military and commercial
clientele around the world.

In addition to FN, there have been other Belgian firms involved in ammunition manu¬
facture. Anciens Establissements Pieper Hertsal (more commonly recognized by its trade¬
mark name Bayard) was founded in the 1800s and operated until the mid-twentieth century,
using the head stamp AEP or A.E.P. They also manufactured firearms. There were many
other Belgian firms such as Societe des Cartoucheries, Belgium: S.C.B.; Francotte, May et
Cie, Liege: VFM & CA V; Charles Fusnot, Brussels: FU; and Societe Anonyme, Brussels: S.
A. Paul Schraff Bruxelles was another remanufacturer of weapons and of cartridges, using
their name as the head stamp on their shot shells. For the most part, these are more archaic
and seldom, if ever, appear outside of cartridge collections. The Belgian firm Van Bruaene
Rik is distinguishable because of its unique cartridge offering, the 7.92x24mm; however,
other more recognized calibers are available with their variety of proprietary projectiles.
The head stamp is VBR-B, affixed at the 6 o’clock position, the caliber at 12 o’clock.

Bolivia

Small-arms ammunition is solely manufactured by the state-controlled Armed Forces
National Development Corporation, which markets to military and commercial consum¬
ers. The only observed head stamp is BOLIVIA.

Brazil

The firm Fabrica Nacional de Cartuchos y Municoes, Sao Paulo, was marked ESCUDO or
F.N.C.M. Later this company would become Companhia Brasileira de Cartuchos (CBC),
under the control of a partnership between Remington Arms and Imperial Chemical
Industries. In 1979 CBC became wholly Brazilian owned. CBC uses the brand name
Magtech for export cartridges; however, the CBC head stamp is still retained. Head stamp
MRP for Magtech Recreational Products was also used. The V head stamp is for Velox,
strictly limited to .22 rim-fire cartridges manufactured by CBC. In 2007, CBC acquired
the German firm MEN, and in 2009 acquired the munitions firm Sellier & Bellot in the
Czech Republic. Rio Ammunition is another brand of shot shell produced in Brazil, and
has purportedly been in business since 1898. The state-controlled firm IMBEL (Industria
de War Material) used the head stamp IMBEL. Fabrica Realengo, Rio de Janeiro, was
founded in 1898 and operated under subtly different names until the 1980s. Its final head
stamp was F R; previously it had used F.C.A.G. (1900-11) and C R F (1911-33).

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso has also been known as Upper Volta at various times during the twenti¬
eth century. The Industrial Society Burkina Arms and Ammunition (SIBAM) is Burkina

Cartridge Head Stamps

129

Faso’s chartered defense products provider. It is based in Ouagadougou. The marking prac¬
tices are not precisely established, but markings such as SIBAM seem rational. Cartridges
bearing the head stamp CV for Cartoucherie Voltaique (CARVOLT) have been observed.

Burma

Ammunition either manufactured in Burma or supplied by a third-party source to Burma
has appeared bearing a triangle head stamp and a C or a cj. Other numbers may appear
that are likely a month and year of production, the year being a two-digit numeral.

Cambodia

Factory code 65 is recognized as representing Manufacture de Stung Chral. The Soviet-
style head-stamp pattern was employed, with the cartridge dimension at 12 o’clock and the
factory number at 6 o’clock.

Cameroon

Manufacture Camerounnaise de Munitions is the state munitions producer in Cameroon.
The single observed head stamp is MANUCAM. Cartridges of 9x19mm and 7.62x51mm
bearing this head stamp have been observed and include a caliber designation and perhaps
a two-digit year.

Canada

Canada was a significant contributor to the overall military efforts of the Commonwealth
during both world wars. After the Second World War, the Canadian ammunition
industry gradually abated in presence until only SNC Technologies remained as a sole-
source provider for military ammunition, and it was subsequently acquired by General
Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems. Commercial ammunition was produced by
Canadian Industries Ltd. and sold under the name Canuck and Imperial or by Fremel
Manufacturing in Ontario, using the head stamp FREMEL. Other relevant head stamps
are as follows:

Canadian Industries Ltd.: IMPERIAL
Defence Industries, Montreal: DI
Defense Industries, Ltd., Quebec: DC, DI, DI Z
Defense Industries, Verdun, Quebec: V C
Dominion Arsenal, Lindsay, Ontario: D.A.L.

Dominion Cartridge of Quebec: DA, D.A., D A, D C, D, DAQ, DCCo, D.C. Co,
DOMINION, MM.

Dominion Rubber and Munitions Ltd., Three Rivers, Quebec: T.R.

General Dynamics Ordnance & Tactical Systems (also SNC Technologies/Industries
Valcartier): IVI

Ross Rifle Co., Quebec: R.R.Co., R.R.Co. CAN

130

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Chile

Fabricas y Maestranzas del Ejercito (FAMAE for short) is the state-controlled arms cor¬
poration and has been in operation for some 200 years. It manufactures current Western
standard cartridges and shot shells for civilian markets. FAMAE has been used as a head
stamp, as well as F, FME, and FM EP, and may include a two-digit date, caliber, and may
also appear with the NATO cross, indicating that the cartridge has been manufactured in
compliance NATO ammunition specifications.

China

China was a major supplier of ammunition into the United States until February 1994,
when further importation was banned entirely by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms
and Explosives (BATFE). The justification behind the action concerned the classification
of Chinese 7.62x39mm ammunition as armor piercing, which led to the prohibition of
future importation of that specific caliber. A comprehensive ban on further importation of
all Chinese-made arms and munitions into the United States went into effect in May 1994.

Ammunition imported from China was sold under various trade names such as
NORINCO (North China Industries Corporation), China Sport (NORINCO), and Jing
An. Other caliber cartridges that were imported included 7.62x54mmR, 7.62x25mm, .30
Mauser (7.63x25mm), 9x19mm, 9x18mm Makarov, .223 Remington, .308 Winchester, and
.45 ACP. In addition, 12-gauge shot shells originated in China, sold under the brand name
Arrow, were actually manufactured by NORINCO, and these were stamped ZP over ZH.
Chinese-produced casings appear in colors ranging from a reddish bronze to dark brown,
brownish green, silvery bare metal, and on a very limited basis, brass. The reddish bronze
casing is copper coated over base metal (also referred to as bimetal), giving such cartridges
a distinct reddish-gold appearance.

Chinese ammunition production is through dozens, if not hundreds, of state-con-
trolled arsenals that make cartridges for their own military purposes as well as for export.
Ammunition thought to be of Chinese origin that predates the Second World War may
have been foreign-sourced and imported into China from friendly nations such as the
United States or Canada. Chinese ammunition dating from the late 1940s into the 1950s
exhibit an irregular patterning of a mixture of Chinese characters, cartridge caliber, fac¬
tory code numbers, and dates. Since China made extensive use of imported firearms, as
well as domestically produced copies of foreign arms, such ammunition will be encoun¬
tered in familiar calibers of the era: .30-06, 7.92x57mm Mauser, .45 ACP, 6.5mm Japanese,
and the like. Chinese ammunition can been seen marked with Chinese language icons, as
well as swastikas, which could be misinterpreted to mean German Nazi-era ammunition.
Since ammunition production in China is a state-controlled industry, numerous facto¬
ries are engaged and are identified by a factory number. Observed factory numbers are
CJ, D, LY, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 81, 101, 111, 121, 131, 141, 215, 321, 351, 451, 661, 671, 711, 791,
21215, and a triangle. In the early to mid-1950s, it would appear that the Chinese started
to standardize their head-stamp practices to match the Soviet practice, with the factory
number at 12 o’clock and the date at 6 o’clock. However, certain other codes also appear
in the 6 o’clock position. This would coincide with China adopting various Soviet-pattern
firearms—either received from the Soviet Union or domestically produced copies of such
weapons—but this may be entirely by coincidence.

Cartridge Head Stamps

131

Some Chinese ammunition can be seen marked with the caliber designation, particu¬
larly examples initially packaged for commercial sale. Due to the limited ability to research
the practices of ordnance and munitions production within China, the firm identification
of these numerical identifications to any particular factory remains elusive. For the most
part, this degree of detail is probably unnecessary, as it will suffice to simply identify the
ammunition as being of Chinese origin. Chinese ammunition is identified by its type,
which is derived from the year it was adopted into official service. The Russian 7.62x54mmR
is the Type 53; 7.62x25mm is the Type 54; 7.62x39mm is the Type 56; 9x18mm Makarov
is the Type 59; and 7.62x17mm is the Type 64. The Type 64 is dedicated exclusively to the
Types 64 and 67 suppressed pistol and has not been seen to any great degree in the United
States. The semi-rimmed 7.62x17mm should not be confused with the Type 64; they are
not interchangeable due to the variation in rim design.

Chinese-sourced ammunition imported to the United States came packaged in card¬
board commercial-style boxes and in plain military-style containers, and when it was
commercially sold, it was easily acquired in bulk quantity, sold in hermetically sealed gal¬
vanized steel cases. These cases open by using a can-opener-style tool and are not resealable
once opened. These containers are often referred to as spam cans because of their similar¬
ity to the cans used to package the meat product. Cartridges contained in the spam cans
come wrapped in a waxy kraft-style of paper. The 7.62x39mm cartridges in particular were
loaded onto ten round stripper clips, ideal for immediate use with SKS-type rifles. The
7.62x39mm cartridges sold under the NORINCO name contained a steel core that has been
reported as a “penetrator”; 7.62x39mm cartridges sold under the other names were solid
lead projectiles. In the case of NORINCO cartridges containing the steel core, the outer¬
most portion of the projectile was lead that coated this core, which was made of mild steel
and was cylindrical in appearance. Undoubtedly, there is a great deal of Chinese ammuni¬
tion in existence around the globe. A large cache turned up in Albania in 2008 as part of a
contract bound for Afghanistan to supply pro-Western Afghan forces. The operation was
disrupted by U.S. authorities when the cartridges were identified as being of Chinese ori¬
gin, and were therefore embargoed. The investigation resulted in arrests and prosecutions.

Colombia

Industria Militar Colombia traces its origins back to 1908, taking the name of Industria Militar
in 1954. Center-fire small-arms cartridges are head stamped INDUMIL or IM and with a
caliber designation. In certain instances, the lot number and date of construction by month
and year is also head stamped. Cartridge casings are marked INDUMIL and COLOMBIA.
Shot shells may be identified by either marking inked on the body or head stamped; however,
stars and the gauge are also used on the head stamp (Industria Militar 2011).

Cuba

Cuba’s Industria Militar (Union of Military Industries) is the state-controlled enterprise
concerned with the manufacture, repair, and maintenance of Cuba’s various defense arti¬
cles, and it claims on its website to have the capacity to manufacture ammunition (Defensa
Nacional 2003). Small-arms cartridges originating from Cuba likely will be in Soviet-
standard calibers and likely marked in standard Soviet-era style (a factory number and

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

year). Pre-embargo cartridges have been seen marked “Cuba,” but likely were intended to
be exported to the island from U.S. sources rather than being manufactured there.

Denmark

Many cartridges from Denmark feature a crown in the 12 o’clock position of the base. In
lieu of the crown, other possible information that would appear at the 12 o’clock position
on the head stamp would include material supplier or when the casing material was pro¬
duced. Frequently, the date is a complete four-digit year at the 9 and 3 o’clock positions,
with the manufacturer abbreviation set at the 6 o’clock position. The presence of a triangle
indicates a reloaded cartridge. Ammunition made for contract export has not been seen
to bear the crown or other information and has been limited to the manufacturer head
stamp, caliber, and production year. (Figure 3.9 depicts a 7.92x57mm cartridge made at
Ammunitions Arsenalet in 1954 and sold to Ecuador.) These particular examples were
loaded with steel-cased projectiles. Stamp PJJ was apparently used exclusively on 9x19mm
cartridges made under German occupation. These are discernible by the wartime date that
is stamped at the 6 o’clock position. Relevant head stamps are as follows:

Ammunitions Arsenalet, Copenhagen: AA, AMA (1951-55)

Dansk Rekylriffel Syndikat, Copenhagen: DRS (superseded by the Danish Industrial
Syndicate [DISA] after World War II)

Enger et Co.: X

Haerens Ammunition Arsenalet, Copenhagen: HA

Haerens Krudt Patroneret Laboratoriesvaerks: HL (1900-37)

Dominican Republic

The San Cristobal Arms Factory was started in 1948 and produced a modest number of
arms and the ammunition to support them. The single observed head stamp is AC.

Egypt

Egyptian ammunition is head stamped in Arabic, having the nationality at the 12 o’clock
position and a date at the 6 o’clock position. Egypt has used ordnance-grade brass in car¬
tridge casings. British-service-caliber cartridges, as well as Soviet cartridges, are prevalent
from Egypt, as both have been used in the nation over its modern history. Egyptian muni¬
tions production is controlled by the Ministry of Military Production, which operates a
series of factories that are named but that generally are identified by the plant number. The
two best known are Helwan and Maadi, both recognizable because of firearms known by
those names: the Helwan being a handgun resembling a Beretta 92 and the Maadi being an
Egyptian copy of the Russian AK rifle.

The marking practices for Egyptian ammunition have changed several times. Arabic
characters are used to mark the head stamp. Until 1958, the translated term MISR appeared
at the 12 o’clock position, followed by the two-digit year. In 1959 through 1971, the trans¬
lated term UAR was affixed; from 1971, the term was ARE (Watson III 1984). Another

Cartridge Head Stamps

133

head-stamp variation includes the letters A.R.E. (Arab Republic of Egypt) with a two-digit
date and cartridge caliber arranged in a three-segment head stamp.

Ethiopia

Ethiopian munitions manufacturing is performed by the Homicho Ammunition
Engineering Complex (HAEC), which is part of the overall Ethiopian defense industry.
Like many African nations, Ethiopia received significant technical assistance in setting
up this capacity, at first from Czechoslovakia and later from the Soviet Union and other
Eastern Bloc nations (Griffard and Troxell 2009). There are six separate defense industrial
segments, ranging from uniforms and textiles, to tanks, to aircraft. The complex has the
capacity to manufacture the Russian 7.62x54mm and 7.62x39mm cartridges in both ball
and blank varieties. The head stamp used by HAEC could not be definitively stated, but is
believed to follow Russian/Eastern Bloc practice and would simply be HAEC accompanied
by a year, caliber, or another production-related number.

Finland

Finland has a well-established reputation for building some of the finest small arms and
ammunition in the world. Sako Finland (now partnered with the Beretta Holding Group)
was founded in 1921 and has served military and civilian markets. The company has gone
through several ownership and organizational changes through their history. They have
head stamped their cartridges using S, SAKO, SAT, SAT, S.A.T., and SO. The state-owned
industrial conglomerate Valmet has used VALMET, V PT, and V.P.T. Lapua is part of the
Nammo Group, but it was once a state-controlled industry. They have used head stamps
L and more recently LAPUA, which may be coupled with the L in a shield, as well as cali¬
ber designation of the cartridge. LAPUA- and SAKO-marked cartridges are not routinely
marked with the year of production.

France

France was a major arms and armaments manufacturer until occupation during the
Second World War. Numerous firms were engaged in munitions production during that
period of time. After the Second World War, France occupied the portion of Germany that
encompassed Mauser, and France absorbed large quantities of arms from Germany that
were left over from the war, in addition to some new production. At the end of the war,
Mauser was using code “svw” to identify itself, having switched from code “byf” in late
1944. Postwar, the French continued to use the svw code and svw MB to identify produc¬
tion from Mauser, primarily P.38 handguns and K98k rifles. Postwar production is readily
identified by receiver dates; however, wartime dates are also expected. French production
focused primarily on indigenous calibers such as 7.5 Lebel; however, outside calibers could
be encountered post-World War II. French-sourced ammunition made during the war
under occupation was marked according to German practice. As discussed under Belgium,
it would appear that FN partnered with French munitions firm Nexter in 1991 and sup¬
plied small arms cartridges through this relationship, using head stamp FNB. Since 1950,
the manufacturer appears at the 12 o’clock position with four-digit year at 4 and 8 o’clock.

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

A variation to this is to have the year at the 6 o’clock position. The presence of the NATO
cross indicates a military-specification cartridge. Relevant head stamps are as follows:

Atelier de Construction de Puteaux: A.P.X., A.Px., APX

Atelier de Construction de Rennes: RS

Atelier de Construction de Tarbes: ATS, T S

Atelier de Construction de Toulouse: TE

Atelier de Construction de Valence: A.V.E., AVE., VE

Atelier de Construction de Vincennes: A.V.I.S., AVIS, VS.

Cartoucherie Frangaise, Paris: C F, C.F., C.F, VELO-DOG PARIS, VELO-DOG

Cartoucherie Paulet, Marseille: CP, MI

Ecole Centrale de Pyrotechnie, Bourges: ECP

Etablissements A. Pouvesle, Arcueil: APM, AP

Etablissements Rey Freres, Nimes: RY

Galand, Paris: GALAND

Gevelot S.A., Paris (Societe Frangaise des Munitions, Paris): FTCI, GG (intertwined),
GEVELOT, GMx, G.S.F., G T, S F, SFM, S.F.M, SEN
Karchen & Company: KARCHEN
Manuhrin: MR

Marcel Gaupillat, Paris: G, G.P., or GAUPILLAT
Munitions Approuvees par le Comite de FArtillerie: ART

Germany (Prewar, West Germany, Reunified Germany)

Germany has remained a significant presence in munitions manufacture. During the
rearmament period commencing in the mid-1930s through the end of the Second World
War, Germany used a series of secret code systems consisting of a series of letters and
numbers to indicate armaments and munitions manufacturers. There are potentially
thousands of codes, as each individual manufacturer was assigned one. Codes with a
P prefix are associated with munitions manufacturers, especially in the prewar rear¬
mament period, and were gradually phased out after 1940, but they were used into the
war years and are overlapped by the alphabetic code system. These codes always used
lowercase letters; however, the P prefix codes used a “P.” followed by a two- or three-
digit number such as, but not limited to, P.25, P.28, P.120, P.131, P.334, P.405, and P.635.
The identified ammunition producer codes that were used by firms within Germany,
the Axis allies and puppets, and in the occupied nations include: ad, am, an, ap, asb,
asr, auu, aux, auy, auz, av, avt, avu, avy, awt, axq, aym, bd, be, bf, bg, bj, bk, bne, cdp,
eg, ch, dbg, dma, dnf, dnh, dom, dph, dye, dza, eba, ecc, ecd, edg, edq, eeg, eej, eem,
eeo, eey, emp, eom, fa, faa, fd, fde, fee, fer, fva, ga, gtb, ha, ham, has, hgs, hla, hlb, hlc,
hid, hie, htg, jtb, kam, kfg, krb, kye, kyn, kyp, 1km, mpr, mrb, ndn, nfx, oxo, oyj, pjj,
suk, ta, tko, ua, uxa, va, wa, wb, wc, wd, we, wf, wg, wh, wj, wk, xa, y, ya, and zb. The
identification of any individual code to the assigned manufacturer is probably unim¬
portant outside of collector circles, but it does ascertain that the exhibit in question
was produced during this period. The study of these codes as it relates to war materials,
firearms, and ammunition is a topic that has justified numerous publications that delve
into it specifically.

Cartridge Head Stamps

135

Many munitions firms disappeared at war’s end. In the postwar period, several German
munitions firms gradually returned and began producing for export markets as well as
internal sporting, police, and military consumers. During that period of time, numerous
firms had been absorbed into other firms. Regardless of the particular period, head stamps
used by German firms, other than the aforementioned codes, are as follows:

Berlin-Karlsruhe Industrie Werke: BKIW (formed from DWM postwar)

Braun & Bloehm, Dusseldorf: B.B
Cartouches d’epreuve: Beschuss

Deutsche Waffen und Munitions-fabriken, Berlin, Borsigwalde: DM, DWM,* DWMB
Deutsche Waffen und Munitions-fabriken, Karlsruhe: DWMK
Deutsche Werke, Berlin: DW, DWA

Deutsche Werke Aktiengesselscahft, Berlin: DWA, DWA, D.W.A
Dornheim A.G., Suhl: G.C.D., GECADO- G.C.

Dreyse & Collenbusch, Sommerda: D&C
Dynamit Nobel, Nuremberg: DAG

Dynamit Nobel Genschow, Cologne: DNG (acquired by RUAG in 2002)

Heinrich Utendorffer Patronenfabrik, Nuremberg: HU
Hugo Schneider A.G., Leipzig: HASAG
Georg Egestorff Linden: GEL, EG.

Gustav Genschow & Cie., Durlach (also known as Durlacher Munitionsfabrik): G, D,
GD, Ge, GE, GECO, Geco, G.G & Cie, G.G. & Co, G.G.C. (acquired by Dynamit
Nobel in 1963)

Industrie Werke Karlsruhe: IWK
Koenigliche Munitionsfabrik, Spandau: S

Metallwerk Elisenhiitte GmbH, Nassau Lahn: MEN (acquired by CBC in 2007)

Polte Armaturen und Maschinenfabrik, Magdenburg: PM
Rheinische Metallwaren und Maschinenfarbik, Dusseldorf: H
Rheinische Metallwaren und Maschinenfabrik, Sommerda: R.M, R.M.S.

Rheinische Westfalische Sprenstoff: R.W.S, RWS, R.WS, RWS/GECO (absorbed by
Dynamit Nobel in 1931)

Sellier and Bellot, Schoenback: SB S

Steve Kornbrigel, Dornheim et Suhl: SKd, S.K.D

Utendoerfer, Nurnberg: UN

Vereinigte Zunder und Kabelwerke A.G., Meissan am Elbe: VZK

Greece

Hellenic Defense Systems S.A. (EBO-PYRKAL) was formed in 2004 with the merger of
Greek Powder and Cartridge Company (PYRKAL) and Hellenic Arms Industry (Hellenic
Defence Systems S.A. 2007). The company is a state-controlled enterprise. Production
of small-arms ammunition in calibers 5.56x45mm and 7.62x51mm takes place at the

DWM produced such a vast array of ammunition that it often placed a code denoting the caliber of the
cartridge on the head stamp, instead of marking the caliber. These are often referred to as the "catalog
codes."

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Hymettus complex, whereas sporting cartridges are produced at the Lavrion Plant. Small-
arms ammunition in calibers used by military forces are manufactured to NATO speci¬
fication. Ammunition of various calibers manufactured by PRYKAL used head stamps
HXP, EK, ENK, or GPC. Olympic Industries has used E.D.P. with caliber designation,
NPA, and OLYMP as well as two-digit date and cartridge caliber.

Guatemala

Guatemalan munitions manufacturing is controlled by the military and is produced under
the auspices of Industria Militar de Guatemala. The principle ammunition product is the
5.56x45mm, probably in the M193 (56-grain projectile) based upon observations of their
product on the commercial market. The head stamp is IMG or G, accompanied by the pro¬
duction year and cartridge caliber.

India

During the colonial period, the British established factories in India that manufactured
arms and ordnance at least as early as 1787. Presently, Indian ordnance factories are
operated under the Ministry of Defense, which comprises some 40 facilities that pro¬
duce defense articles (Ordnance Factory Board n.d.). Pre-independence cartridges can be
identified by the British broad-arrow proof mark on the head stamp, plus the appearance
of the factory head stamp and other information that may appear on British-service car¬
tridges. Dum Dum Arsenal used DF and DI; Kirkee Arsenal used KF; and the Ordnance
Factory at Varangaon used OFV. According to the Indian Ordnance Factory website,
the rifle factory at Ishapore is still in operation, as is Varangaon and Dum Dum. Indian
munitions manufacturing includes both NATO-standard cartridges as well as Russian-
caliber cartridges.

Indonesia

PT. PINDAD is the state-owned defense industry in Indonesia. According to the com¬
pany website, the company was founded in 1808 as a military equipment workshop in
Surabaya under the name of Artillerie Constructie Winkel (ACW). The Dutch handed
over the factory to the Indonesian Government on April 29, 1950. The factory was then
officially renamed Pabrik Senjata dan Munisi (PSM), meaning “weapon and ammunition
factory.” PT. PINDAD was nationalized in 1983 and is managed by the Indonesian Army.
The company has since changed names again several times, including PT. Pakarya Industri
(Persero), PT. Bahana Pakarya Industri Strategis (Persero), and now to Kementerian BUMN
(PT. PINDAD [Persero] 2011). PT. PINDAD manufactures a variety of defense articles,
including ammunition in the most common calibers, including .38 Special, 9x19mm,
9x18mm Makarov, .380 ACP, 5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, and 12.7x99mm. Wadcutter,
round nose, and blank .38 Special cartridges are produced. The 9x19mm is produced in
ball and rubber projectile types, which have NSN (NATO stock numbers) assigned. The
9mm Makarov and .380 ACP cartridges are produced with ball-variety projectiles and
also have an NSN assigned. PINDAD 5.56x45mm cartridges are made using blank, ball,
match grade, tracer, and steel-core projectiles. The tracer and blank types have an NSN

Cartridge Head Stamps

137

assigned. The 7.62x51mm is produced in ball, match grade, and tracer types, each having
an assigned NSN. Soviet 7.62x39mm cartridges using ball projectile and blank type are
also manufactured. An unusual cartridge, the 7.62x45mm, is manufactured by PINDAD.
The 7.62x45mm is a unique cartridge that originated in Czechoslovakia, and used only
the VZ 52 rifle, which was short-lived due to the appearance of the AK rifle. PINDAD also
manufactures the 7.62x53mm, better known as the .30-06, available in ball projectile and
blank types. The head stamp PINDAD is used.

Iran

The Defense Industries Group (DIG) is a subsidiary of the Ministry of Defense and
is therefore a state-controlled enterprise of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Defense
Industries Group is broken down into several different industries, including the
Ammunition and Metallurgy Industries (AMIG). The AMIG website claims that it is the
largest industrial group within the DIG and is made up of eight different subsidiaries
scattered throughout Iran (Defense Industries Group 2006). AMIG manufactures both
Russian and NATO cartridges and components: 5.56x45mm M855 and M193 types,
7.62x39mm, 7.62x51mm, 7.62x54mmR, and interestingly 7.92x57mm. The DIG was
previously known as the Iranian Defense Industries Organization as part of the State
Arsenal of Tehran. Ammunition from the Shah era is still seen, typically stated as origi¬
nating in Persia. Head stamps may appear in the form of a crown with a mix of Arabic
and Farsi characters. The materials used tend to mimic Western standards. Surplus
ammunition from the era includes Western calibers such as .303 British and the .30-06.

Ireland

A single head stamp has been associated with Ireland: IMI, for Irish Metal Industries. The
company is still in business, but it does not manufacture ammunition.

Israel

Israel manufactures ammunition for internal use as well as for export for military and
commercial customers. Early Israeli ammunition typically bears head stamps with Hebrew
characters; however, by the mid-1950s the Roman alphabet and Arabic numbers began
to appear. Since 1967, Israeli Military Industries has used the abbreviation IMI on com¬
mercially exported cartridges. IMI purportedly has used the head stamp TZ for military
ammunition intended for use exclusively by Israeli forces. Some sources indicate the TZ
head stamp started appearing as late as 1977. IMI has also head-stamped cartridges TZZ,
apparently for ammunition manufactured for military customers outside of Israel. TZZ-
stamped cartridges have appeared in the United States, perhaps as surplus or contract over¬
run ammunition sold commercially by IMI. The head stamp TA is believed to have been
used to identify Tel Aviv Arsenal, appearing circa 1954. The head stamp E is unknown but
has been associated with Israel.

In 2005, Israeli Military Industries changed its name to Israel Weapons Industries.
Israeli ammunition has always enjoyed a reputation as being some of the finest produced
anywhere in the world. Israel has been subcontracted at various times to supply NATO

138

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

nations with ammunition, and NATO-specification cartridges originating from Israel
will carry the NATO cross on the head stamp as evidence of such. Israeli ammunition
has been sold commercially under the names IMI, Eagle, Samson, and IWI. Israel manu¬
factures ammunition in the NATO military calibers, certain handgun calibers popular
in the American market, and especially in calibers that the Israeli forces use themselves.
Historically, other calibers were manufactured, including 7.92x57mm Mauser, dating back
to when Israel used these surplus rifles to equip their forces before these rifles were con¬
verted to 7.62x51mm.

Italy

The nation of Italy has enjoyed a long and distinguished history of small-arms and ammu¬
nition production. Producer head stamps should not be confused with inspector stamps,
using name abbreviations. Vintage Italian ammunition is archaic at this point; it is more
subject to collector interest than practical use, as comparatively little survived the war and
even less remained usable. Vintage Italian ammunition is primarily in the Italian firearm
calibers such as 7.35x51mm Carcano, 6.5x52mm Carcano, and 9mm Glisenti; however,
non-Italian calibers that were in use in the first half of the twentieth century would be
expected. Modern Italian ammunition is quite common in the form of shot shells and in
sporting calibers. Relevant head stamps are as follows:

Arsenal de Bologne: B P

Brombini Parodi Delfino, S.p.a., Rome: AOC, B P D, B.P.D

Giulio Fiocchi Leeco: CD., CP 99, FIOCCHI, GFL, G.F.L, G.F.L., G F L,

(GFL is currently used in commercial Fiocchi products)

Leon Beaux Milan: BEAUX, L. BEAUX & Co.

Pirotecnia Bologna: T.M
Pyrotechnie de Bologne: A.C.B

Pyrotechnie de Capoue: AA, AA-C., C A, C.AA, C.R, D.C.E., E S, T.R, VS, ZG
Societa Italiana Munizione Leon Beaux et Cie, Milan: SIM
Societa Metalurgica Italiana, Campo Tizzoro: SMI, SYI

Japan

With the exception of naval ammunition, World War II Japanese ammunition does not
appear to regularly exhibit head stamps, particularly the handgun cartridges. The mili¬
tary cartridges then in use—8x22mm Nambu, 8mm SR (semi-rimmed), 9mm Revolver,
6.5x50mm, and 7.7x58mm—were rendered obsolete at the end of hostilities and were sub¬
ject to limited postwar manufacture. The postwar production included Norma-produced
7.7x58mm, Hornady 6.5x50mm, and limited 8mm Nambu production from Asahi Okuma
circa 1960-61 as well as some postwar production in China, likely to supply various and
sundry forces in Asia armed with surplus Japanese weapons. Relatively little wartime
Japanese ammunition remains in existence; the majority produced was used up during the
war or destroyed after Japan surrendered.

Postwar commercial production was intended to satisfy persons who used surplus
Japanese rifles for sporting purposes and collector enthusiasts who wanted to shoot souvenir

Cartridge Head Stamps

139

Japanese pieces. Japanese ammunition was identified by its type, just like their firearms;
the 7.7x58mm is the Type 99. With respect to the 7.7x58mm, caution must be exercised, as
the same dimensioned cartridge was loaded for use with machine guns, the only difference
being the rim design. The Type 99 rifle cartridge is rimless, whereas the 7.7x58mm Type 92
is fully rimmed like the British .303 or the Russian 7.62x54mm. The 8x22mm Nambu was
officially designated the Type 14, as was the pistol chambered for it; however, the Japanese
Type 94 pistol also used the same cartridge, retaining the Type 14 designation. The vari¬
ous Japanese submachine guns were chambered in 8x22mm Nambu as well. Due to the
very limited application of Japanese cartridges outside Japan, the cartridges are typically
suffixed with the term Jap. Colloquially, all Japanese rifles have been termed Arisaka. The
limited number of head stamps linked to Japan are: Asahi Okuma Company, AOA; Naval
Arsenal of Yokosuka (date and caliber also stamped), E; and Tokyo Seiki Co., T E and
TOYO. The letter y has been associated with the Toyokawa Naval Arsenal.

Kenya

Kenya Ordnance Factories Corporation is Kenya’s only indigenous ammunition produc¬
tion facility. The corporation was chartered by state order in 1997. The corporation manu¬
factures 7.62x51mm, 5.56x45mm, and 9x19mm cartridges. Blank cartridges are produced
in 7.62x51mm and 5.56x45mm but not in the 9x19mm; only live ammunition of 9x19mm
caliber is manufactured. The designation SS 77/1 is used to identify ball 7.62x51mm car¬
tridges, which likely mimics the US M80 cartridge. The company produces the SS 109 type
(heavy ball) 5.56x45mm. It is claimed that all ammunition is manufactured to NATO spec¬
ifications (Kenya Ordnance Factories n.d.). It is not claimed that the ammunition has been
tested and accepted by NATO or that a NATO acceptance stamp should appear. A three-
element head stamp has been seen, using KOF, a two-digit date, and caliber designation.

Lithuania

The Lithuanian munitions firm Giraites Ginkluotes Gamykla (GGG) manufactures NATO
specification 7.62x51mm (M80) and 5.56x45mm (SS109 projectile) cartridges. The com¬
pany came online in 2000 and received certification to NATO specification in May 2005.
The company reports that since 2006, some 90% of their annual output is exported (AB
Giraites Ginkluotes Gamykla n.d.). The head stamp is GGG, and the NATO cross is to be
expected. GGG ammunition has appeared on the commercial market and appears to be
the same ammunition produced to NATO specifications.

Malaysia

SMEO, formally known as Syarikat Malaysia Explosives, Ltd., is a government-controlled
entity and the only munitions production firm in Malaysia. According to the company web¬
site, “SMEO was incorporated in 1969 as a joint venture Company with equity participa¬
tion between the Government of Malaysia, Dynamit Nobel of Germany, Oerlikon Machine
Tools of Switzerland and two local partners namely Syarikat Permodalan Kebangsaan and
Syarikat Jaya Raya Sdn Bhd. However, by 1974, the Government of Malaysia acquired all
the shares” (SME Ordnance Sdn Bhd n.d.). The head stamp MAL accompanied by the
caliber and two-digit year has been observed. Small-arms ammunition and shot shells

140

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

are manufactured. Calibers produced include .38 Special, 9x19mm, and varieties of
5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, and 12.7x99mm.

Mexico

The state-controlled ammunition enterprise in Mexico is the Fabrica Nacional de
Municiones de Mexico, and it has marked cartridges with F de M, F.M, FM, FNC, F.N.C,
and F.N.C. Remington Arms was a partner in the Mexican-based cartridge producer
Cartuchos Deportavos de Mexico, which used the head stamp CDM. In 1978, the company
changed names to Tecnos Industria SA. The company now markets under the brand name
Aguila. The name Aguila appears as the head stamp alongside caliber designation in the
traditional commercial form.

Morocco

Moroccan ammunition was manufactured by Manufacture Nationale dArmes et de
Munitions. The observed head stamp was MNAM. It is unclear if Morocco still manufac¬
tures ammunition.

Netherlands

The Dutch Government Ordnance Works, aK Artillerie Inrichtingen, was founded in 1679
and was the sole supplier of arms and ammunition within the Netherlands. The opera¬
tion was later renamed Hembrug. In the early 1970s, Eurometaal N.V. was spun off from
Hembrug. Assensys B.V. succeeded Eurometaal in Dutch munitions manufacturing and
markets small-arms ammunition (Assensys B.V. n.d.). Head stamps used by aK Artillerie
Inrichtingen were A, AI, AI C, AAI, BAI, DAI, G, and AI. Stamps 33, 37, B, D, DO, G, I,
O, P, U, and X have also been observed, likely related to casing material, lot, or propellant
information, and not necessarily as a definitive manufacturer head stamp. Head stamps
EMZ and NWM have also been reported since the early 1980s.

New Zealand

The Colonial Ammunition Company in Auckland was the first munitions production firm
located in New Zealand. Three head-stamp variations have been identified: C A C, C.A.C,
and CAC. Hy-Score is a commercial brand that was manufactured in both Australia and
New Zealand by the Colonial Ammunition Company. Hy-Score cartridges were in hunt¬
ing- and sporting-oriented calibers such as .22 and .243 Winchester. Presently, Ordnance
Developments Ltd. exclusively manufactures training and special-purpose ammunition
in the form of blank cartridges as well as frangible projectile cartridges directed specifi¬
cally at law enforcement, military clients, and theatrical performance. Their 9x19mm ball
ammunition is the only live cartridge produced by the firm. Blanks are manufactured in
5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, 9x19mm, .50 BMG, and .338 Lapua. Frangible loads are manu¬
factured in 5.56mm, 9x19mm, and .40 S&W. The company invests greatly in clear identi¬
fication of its blank cartridges as a matter of safety (Ordnance Developments 2009). The
company uses brass and steel in the manufacture of cartridge casings. Thales is the current
supplier for New Zealand military ammunition requirements.

Cartridge Head Stamps

141

Nigeria

Defense Industries Corporation of Nigeria (DICON) was founded in 1963 as a chartered
state enterprise. According to the DICON corporate website, the (West) German firm Fritz
Werner provided technical assistance in setting up the facilities. The initial output in 1964
is reported to have been 12 million 7.62x51mm and 4 million 9x19mm cartridges annu¬
ally. This output is said to have tripled during the Nigerian Civil War (1967-70). Some
sources have reported that the ordnance factory is located in Lagos; however, the DICON
corporate website states that the ordnance plant is located in Kaduna (Defense Industries
Corporation of Nigeria 2010). A single head stamp is reported to be currently used: OFN
(Ordnance Factory of Nigeria). The head stamp AFN may have been used previously.

North Korea

North Korean source ammunition is virtually nonexistent save examples in the hands of
military or intelligence agency collections or a few private collections. In all likelihood,
North Korea maintained a marking practice consistent with the Soviet Union and China.
A head stamp bearing a solid triangle at the 6 o’clock position, coupled with either a ring
or the letter A at 12 o’clock, has been observed on some examples. Variations include the
use of a star, circle, or factory code 93 with a Korean character or two digits. In these varia¬
tions, the arrangement of the stampings remains the same.

Norway

The Nordic Ammunition Group (Nammo AS) is a group comprised of three defense indus¬
try firms based in Finland and Norway. The group was founded in 1998 and was formed
by the merger of Celsius AB, Patria Industries, and Raufoss (Nammo AS 2011). Nammo
manufactures small-caliber cartridges in 5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, .338 Lapua Magnum,
12.7x99mm, and 9x19mm. All calibers are available in a variety of loads, including ball,
tracer, subsonic, armor piercing, etc. “Nammo was the first company to introduce Plastic
Training Ammunition. Since 1954, Plastic Blank Ammunition and Plastic Short Range
Training Ammunition (PSRTA) have been used by military forces and law enforcement
communities worldwide. Plastic Training Ammunition is available in all calibers from
4.6mm-40mm” (Nammo AS 2012). Lead-free cartridges, reduced-range training loads,
and other types of specialized cartridges are available. Previous head stamps used by
Raufoss were A.Y.R, AYR, R P, and R T P (may include a crown and/or date, usually seg¬
mented into four divided elements). Nammo Lapua is the commercial ammunition pro¬
vider, marketing cartridges in popular calibers. Lapua uses a shield surrounding an L as a
head stamp.

Pakistan

Pakistan Ordnance Factories is a conglomerate of 14 separate factories and three commer¬
cial subsidiaries that produce military and commercial products. The Pakistan Ordnance
Factory is often simply referenced as POF. It manufactures both the Russian- and NATO-
standard cartridges: 5.56x45mm, 7.62x39mm, 7.62x54mmR, 7.62x51mm, and 9x19mm
(Pakistan Ordnance Factories 2010). Brass is used for the casing material on all cartridges.

142

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

The head stamp is POF, caliber designation, and last two digits of the year of manufacture.
This head stamp, coupled with year of manufacture, appears to have been used since the
inception of POF in 1951. During the colonial period, Britain had constructed a number of
ordnance factories within Pakistan, and it would appear that the POF head stamp was at
that time coupled with standard British proof marks.

Peru

FAME S.A.C., or Fabrica de Municiones del Ejercito, de Lima, is a military-controlled pri¬
vate enterprise, having transitioned from being a state-controlled enterprise in 2009. The
company was founded in 1963 by government decree with the intention of supplying the
Peruvian armed forces (FAME S.A.C. 2011). Presently, the manufacturer’s product mix
includes 7.62x51mm, 9x19mm, .380 ACP, .38 Super, and .38 Special center-fire ammuni¬
tion, in addition to 12- and 16-gauge shot shells. Their product carries the head stamp
FAME and a two-digit year.

The Philippines

The Philippine Islands are home to several munitions firms that have done a lot of man¬
ufacturing of arms and ammunition on behalf of other names. Armscor is one such
commercial arms and munitions manufacturer. This company should not be confused
with the South African firm of the same name. The company entered the ammunition
and firearms manufacturing business in 1952 as Squires Bingham Manufacturing Inc.
The firm changed names to Armscor (Arms Corporation of the Philippines) in 1980.
The company manufactures a variety of firearms and popular ammunition calibers
(Arms Corporation of the Philippines 2005). In addition to Armscor-labeled products,
the company has produced ammunition for a variety of other customers under their
brand names, generally head stamping the product to suit the desires of the retailer.
Commercially used names have included Concorde, Seeker, and Squires Bingham.
Observed head stamps include the caliber designation, as well as AP or ACP, which
could readily be mistaken as part of the caliber designation, rather than the manufactur¬
er’s abbreviation. The .22 rim-fire cartridges are stamped with a T. Floro International
Corporation is another defense firm based in the Philippine Islands; however, they focus
primarily on defense products, including firearms, firearm suppressors, mines, gre¬
nades, and other military accoutrements.

The Filipino Department of National Defense Government operates the Government
Arsenal. Their current products include the 5.56x45mm M193 cartridge, 7.62x51mm M80
cartridge, 9x19mm, and .45 ACP, although .30 Carbine, .30-06, and .38 Special cartridges
had been made in the past (Government Arsenal of the Philippines n.d.). Cartridges pro¬
duced by the arsenal are head stamped RPA and the two-digit year. Compliance with
NATO ammunition specifications in NATO standard calibers is claimed.

Portugal

EMPORDEF (Portuguese Company of Defense SA) operates the Portuguese defense
industry on behalf of the Portuguese government and is the parent company of Portuguese
munitions producer IDD (EMPORDEFF 2007). IDD appears to have superseded the former

Cartridge Head Stamps

143

arms and munitions maker INDEP (Industria de Defesa SA). INDEP was a recognized
NATO supplier and used the head stamp FNM, the abbreviation for its prior name Fabrica
Nacional de Muni<;des de Armas Ligeiras, and two-digit year. Other historical Portuguese
munitions producers were Arsenal de Exercito, which used an intertwined AE, and Fabrica
de Cartuchas y Polvoras Quimicas, stamping F C.

Saudi Arabia

The most recognizable feature of the Saudi head stamp is the crossed swords and palm
trees. The palm trees are stamped at the 12 o’clock position, the swords at 6 o’clock. In
Arabic numbers, the caliber appears at 9 o’clock and the year of manufacture at 3 o’clock.
The date calculation is based on Islamic Hirja, and they observe the lunar calendar, not the
Gregorian calendar.

Scotland

The sole producer of shotgun shells in Scotland is the Caledonian Cartridge Company. The
product is commercially sold throughout the world and readily recognized by inked mark¬
ings on the shot shell hull.

Singapore

Singapore Technologies Kinetics is part of Singapore Technologies Engineering, Ltd.
The company, in part, manufactures small arms and small-arms ammunition. A for¬
mer defense products provider, Chartered Industries of Singapore, was acquired by ST
Kinetics in 2000 (ST Engineering 2006). ST Kinetics currently manufactures compre¬
hensive lines of cartridges in .50 BMG (12.7x99mm), 5.56x45mm, and 7.62x51mm.
The 5.56x45mm line includes frangible low-energy ammunition (FLEA), plastic-cased
blanks, and the typical ball projectiles. Chartered Ammunition Industries cartridges
were head stamped HB along with the cartridge caliber designation. HG is observed
as the head stamp, unusually at the 6 o’clock position, with the caliber designation at
12 o’clock.

South Africa

South African ammunition was restricted due to trade embargoes internationally because
of the policy of apartheid. When this practice ended in 1994, South African ammunition
began to appear on the market. Pretoria Metal Pressings, now part of Denel Group, has
used the head stamps A, P, PMP, A80, D 02, DNL, and 13. PMP continues to manufacture
military and commercial ammunition, including the 9x19mm, 5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm,
and the 12.7x99mm. On the commercial side, PMP manufactures a comprehensive line of
handgun and rifle cartridges, including heavy rifle rounds for large game. Other numer¬
als may appear, but these are not the head stamp, instead referencing other information.
Swartklip Products became part of the Denel Group in 1992. Swartklip itself was founded
originally as Ronoden, which passed to Armscor in the early 1970s. Ronoden used the head
stamp RMC; Swartklip used SP. Centurion Arms produced ammunition under the brand
name AmmoTech, marked AMT. A U head stamp was used to identify the Government

144

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Factory (The Mint), Pretoria, until 1961, when replaced by SAM. A diamond after the U
indicated the branch mint at Kimberly (Watson III 1984). South African Ammunition
Factory used the head stamp SAAF. The firm Musgrave Manufacturers, Ltd., used head
stamps M M, mus, and 0 8.

South Korea

Poongsan Corporation, located in South Korea, manufactures defense products, includ¬
ing small-arms ammunition for military and commercial markets. These cartridges are
marketed in the United States as Precision Made Cartridges, bearing the head stamp PMC.
PMC is also reported to mean Pan Metal Corporation. Poongsan ammunition was previ¬
ously imported through a variety of different agents into the United States. The head stamp
PS was also used, perhaps to indicate military-specification cartridges, whereas PMC
denoted commercial specification. Cartridges observed with the PS head stamp also had
a date stamped, appearing in two formats: one using an abbreviated month and year, such
as “Nov.82”, the other as a year and month, such as “80.01.” Three variations in the letter
M in the PMC head stamp have been observed, which may indicate the specific source that
produced the cartridge. Ammunition branded as Hot Shot was another PMC brand and
was commercially labeled accordingly. (Figure 3.4 reflects the PMC and PS head stamps.)

Spain

Historically, Spain has had numerous munitions manufacturers, most having disappeared
by the 1970s. Santa Barbara Sistemas was a state enterprise, part of the Spanish Ministry
of Defense, until acquired by General Dynamics in 2001 as part of the Combat Systems
Group (General Dynamics 2001). In 2003, Santa Barbara was integrated into the General
Dynamics European Land Systems (General Dynamics European Land Systems 2011).
Santa Barbara continues to use the head stamp SB. The stamp “J. Costas Barcelona” appears
on older, paper-hulled shot shells. Rio is another Spanish brand name that manufactures
shot shells. The name Rio appears on the shot shell hulls, which are made of plastic. The
historical identified head stamps and associated firms are:

Consorcio de Industries Militares: CIM
Cordo S.A., San Sebastian: CO
Empresa Nacional de Santa Barbara, Palencia: SB
Empresa Nacional de Santa Barbara, Toledo: SB-T or T
Fabrica Nacional de Palencia: FNP or P
Fabrica Nacional de Toledo: CIM FNT, A T, T A
Manufacturas Metalicas Madrilena: MMM
Pirotecnia Militaria de Seville: CIM-PS, PS, S
Secretaria de Armamento, Delegacion de Valencia: SA
Spanish Government Arsenal: S. G.

Standard Electrica, Madrid: M or T

Star Bonifacio Echeverria S.A.: STAR TRUST

Union Espanola de Esplosivos: U intertwined with I

Cartridge Head Stamps

145

Sudan

Military Industry Corporation (MIC) Sudan became operational in 1960 and is controlled
by the Sudanese Ministry of Defense. The organization has five facilities and manufactures
a diverse offering of military products, including small arms and ammunition, specifically
9x19mm and 7.62x54mm cartridges, although 7.62x39mm cartridge production cannot
be ruled out due to the proliferation of arms chambered in that caliber, particularly the AK
series of firearms (MIC Sudan 2007). One variation in the head stamp is unusual in that
a four-element design is utilized: SU appears at the 12 o’clock position, a two-digit year at
the 9 o’clock, and other numerical values at the 3 and 6 o’clock positions. A three-element
design, using SUD instead of SU, caliber, and date may also be found.

Sweden

The Swedish state arms industry was comprised of several arsenals. Cartridges from the
1940s can appear with the three-letter code amf followed by factory numbers 24, 26, 27,
28, 29, 30, 31, or 32. Cartridges dating from the 1960s appear with codes 24,25,26,026,27,
027, 070 along with the amf marking. The presence of a 0 prefix numeric may have indi¬
cated a cartridge intended for export. Circles or stars possibly indicate reloaded casings;
the appearance of roman numerals indicates production lot numbers or delivery number.
Cartridges may bear other numeric codes that indicate cartridges from foreign sources
such as the United States or the United Kingdom, particularly prior to World War II.

AB Norma Projektilfabrik: NORMA, norma
Arsenal de Karlsborg: EK
Dansk Ammunitionsfabrik, Otterup: 27, 027
Forenade Fabriksverken: FFV

Karlsborg Ammunisjon Faktori, Karlsborg: CG (CG now used by NAMMO)

Svenska Metallwerken Vasteras: HERTER’S, SM, 26, 026

Switzerland

In 1995, Schweizerische Munitionsfabrik (Swiss Ammunition Enterprise) was formed
by the unification of the Altorf and Thun factories and was afterwards renamed RUAG
Munition in 1999 (RUAG Holding 2011). Historically, head stamps used by Swiss produc¬
ers are as follows:

Airmunition Industries: AM

Eidgenossische Munitions Fabriken, Altdorf: T A, D A

Eidgenossische Munitions Fabriken, Thun: B T, D T, R T, M T, MFT, T, T T, W T, (T
W may also be associated), THUN
Fabrique de Soleure: FS
Patronenfabrik A.G. Solothurn: P
Swiss Government Marking: SW. GOV.

146

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Taiwan

Taiwan has maintained a relatively small armaments production capacity. A historical head
stamp is 60A, identifying cartridges produced by the 60th Arsenal, which was founded on
September 1, 1946, on mainland China. The 60th Arsenal was reestablished in Taiwan after
the machinery was moved from mainland China in 1948-49 and was subsequently renamed
the 205th Arsenal (Ministry of National Defense R.O.C. 2011). The head stamp TAA is used
by the 205th arsenal. The 205th Arsenal has been recognized as a NATO supplier; thus the
NATO cross may be encountered on such cartridges if they are manufactured to NATO speci¬
fications. Ammunition produced by the 205th Arsenal is not directly marketed to the com¬
mercial sector, but may appear if such cartridges are sold as surplus from a customer stockpile.

Tanzania

The Tanzania People’s Defense Forces operate the Mzinga Corporation as a manufacturer
for small arms and ammunition. “The Mzinga Corporation in Tanzania was set up in 1971
with Chinese equipment to produce 7.62x39mm ammunition” (Anders and Weidacher
2006). The observed head stamp is MZINGA.

Thailand

Thailand has maintained a domestic defense industry that operates under the Ministry of
Defense. Historically, Thailand was not a major exporter of ammunition, but the cartridges
produced are NATO standard, as Thailand uses weapons originating from Western nations
almost exclusively. There are several munitions operations based in Thailand. Thai Arms,
based in Bangkok, used the head stamp TA. Products of Bullet Master Company, Ltd., also
located in Bangkok, have been observed with the head stamp BM. Royal Ammunition
is another Thai product, using the head stamp RAI coupled with a two-digit date and
caliber designation. The company currently focuses on the manufacture of pistol-caliber
cartridges (Royal Ammunition 2009).

Turkey

Until 1950, Turkish ammunition used a four-element head-stamp design, partitioned by
lines. The crescent moon and star appear at the 12 o’clock position surrounded by the
letters TC (translated to mean Turkish Republic), four-digit year at 3 o’clock, caliber at 9
o’clock, and FS appears at 6 o’clock. FS is the actual factory code, reflecting fabrication by
the plant at Kirikkale/Ankara. The head stamp MKE, at the 6 o’clock position, stands for
Makina ve Kimya Endustrisi Kurumu, which seems to be the more modern head stamp.
The head stamp FI, coupled with TC (note previous mention) for Fabrikalar Iskenderun,
may also be encountered.

Uganda

Luwero Industries Ltd. is a subsidiary of the National Enterprise Corporation in Uganda,
but is owned and operated by the Ugandan Ministry of Defense. Luwero manufactures
ammunition and provides repair and refurbishment services for small arms and other

Cartridge Head Stamps

147

defense materials. The Luwero factory is located in Nakasongola and was commissioned
by an act of parliament in 1989 (IHS Global 2011). The head stamp LI at the 12 o’clock posi¬
tion, coupled with a two-digit year at the 6 o’clock position, has been observed. Variations
of this stamp may be encountered; however, the information is substantially the same.
Luwero cartridges resemble those of Chinese origin, the casings having a distinctly red
appearance in contrast to traditional cartridge brass or base steel.

United Arab Emirates

ADCOM Manufacturing, Ltd., based in Abu Dhabi, was acquired by the firm Tawazun
Holding and renamed Caracal Light Ammunition (CLA) (Caracal Light Ammunition
2011). Burkan Munitions Systems LLC is also part of the same group. Caracal Light
Ammunition manufactures 5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, and .50 BMG (12.7x99mm) car¬
tridges to Western standards and using standardized designations. Ammunition variants
include standard ball, armor piercing, tracer, and so forth. For ADCOM, the head stamp
AD, a two-digit year, and caliber designation are used. Caracal is currently the only small-
arms manufacturer in the UAE. The company also markets a pistol of the same name, and
a precision rifle also appears to be in the works.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom historically had a vast number of firms involved in producing ammu¬
nition for civilian and military consumption. The United Kingdom has long enjoyed a
reputation as one of the world centers for fine sporting arms and ammunition. During the
world wars, many firms were engaged in supporting the war efforts by producing muni¬
tions. After the Second World War, there was a great deal of consolidation, and many
companies left the industry. In addition to private firms that were brought in, the British
Ministry of Supply (later Ministry of Defense) operated a comprehensive network of Royal
Ordnance Factories. In the mid-1980s, the British government privatized the remaining
active ordnance factories under the name Royal Ordnance, where they passed into the
hands of British Aerospace, which in turn dropped the Royal Ordnance name. The com¬
pany manufactures ammunition under the name BAE Systems Land & Armaments.

Ammunition Company of Europe: ACE
Arche Wringers Ltd., Glasgow: AW

Birmingham Metal & Munitions Company, Birmingham: J
Birmingham Small Arms & Metal Company: B, B.S.A.

British Manufacturing & Research Co., Grontham: BMRC
Crompton Parkinson: C-P

Eley Brothers Ltd., London: E, EB, EC Eley, ELEY, ELEY BROs., WILKINSON
F Joyce & Cie, London: F.J.

Greenfell & Accles, Ltd., Birmingham: GA, G+A
Greenwood & Batley: G, GB
Greenwood & Batley, Farnham: GBF
Holland & Holland: HO. & HO.

ImperialMetal Industries (Kynoch Ltd.): K-33, K34, K.50, K53, K55, K56, K.57, KYNOCH
John Rigby & Sons: RIGB

148

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Kings Norton: HG - NTN

Kynoch Factories (Imperial Chemical Industries), Birmingham: ICI, KY, WR
Ministry of Supply Factory, Hirwan: HN
Mountain & Sowden, Ltd.: M&S

Nobel Industries, Ltd. (London & Birmingham): NOBEL

R Webley & Sons, Birmingham: WB

Royal Laboratory, Woolrich: R, RL

Royal Naval Armament Depot: RNAD

Royal Ordnance Factory Blackpool: BE

Royal Ordnance Factory Burghfield: BD

Royal Ordnance Factory, Radway Green: RG, R.G., RORG

Royal Ordnance Factory, Spennymoor: S R

Royal Ordnance Factory Thorpe Arch, Boston Spa/Yorks: TH

Royal Ordnance Laboratory, Birmingham: ROFB, R. L.

Webley & Scott, Ltd.: WEBLEY, W&S

Venezuela

Compania Anonima Venezolana de Industrias Militares, or CAVIM for short, is the state
arms industry. CAVIM manufactures small-arms ammunition in the various commer¬
cially popular calibers, and their ammunition has been sold in the United States. Head
stamps included CAVIM, and a caliber designation and a two-digit year may also appear.
The head stamp VEN may have also been used for production under the auspices of the
Ministry of Defense and not intended for commercial consumption.

Zimbabwe

Mathews Manufacturing Co., perhaps better known in numismatic circles, is said to
have produced ammunition using the head stamp MMCo. Such cartridges would date to
when Zimbabwe was known as Rhodesia (circa 1965-79). Currently, Zimbabwe Defense
Industries (ZDI) operates as the principle supplier of small arms and ammunition within
the country. Like most, if not all, African nations, Zimbabwe received foreign technical
assistance in setting up ZDI. Ammunition manufactured by Zimbabwe Defense Industries
was briefly available in the United States in the late 1990s, marketed under the brand name
Cheetah. The observed head stamp was ZI marked in the 6 o’clock position and a two-digit
year at 12 o’clock. Brass cartridge casings were used.

The Russian Federation, Soviet Union,

Warsaw Pact, and Eastern Europe

In nations around the world where ammunition is produced by state-controlled arsenals,
there has been an element of secrecy attached to what arsenals produce ammunition and
where they are located. Ammunition produced in the former Soviet Union, China, North
Korea, or former Warsaw Pact nations usually bear only a date and factory code. Most

Cartridge Head Stamps

149

information known about factory-coded ammunition originating from the Eastern Bloc
has come from declassified intelligence sources detailing where small ammunition pro¬
duction facilities were located. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, subsequent collapse of
the Warsaw Pact, and eventual collapse of the Soviet Union itself, most nations that were
once under the influence of the Soviets have capitalized on existing stockpiles of small-
arms ammunition and production facilities. Much of the existing stock has been exported
around the world, while the factories have either privatized or remained state-controlled
enterprises and are actively selling their products worldwide. There is comparatively little
ammunition predating the Cold War left over, except in the hands of collectors; thus the
need to positively ascertain the identities of such specimens is limited outside the context
of cartridge collectors and historians.

Ammunition originating from the Russian Federation differs little from that produced
during the Soviet era. As a whole, there are no significant differences between cartridges
produced by the various factories other than some variations in materials selection. With
the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991, the former Soviet military-industrial complex
faced almost certain doom. The same factories that churned out untold billions of rounds
to fill state orders have turned their attention toward the worldwide market in military
and civilian sectors. The cartridge casings are made of steel and appear in colors ranging
from dark brown to greenish brown, olive green, and steel gray. A red or purple ring can
be observed where the projectile meets the casing neck as well as around the primer open¬
ing at the base of the casing. This coloring is a waterproof sealant and is found on mili¬
tary-specification cartridges. Soviet-sourced cartridges not bearing this sealant have been
observed; however, these cartridges apparently were not manufactured to military speci¬
fication, likely intended from the outset of production bound for the commercial market¬
place. These cartridges have a slightly shiny appearance, as they are treated with a thin
layer of lacquer or polymer as a protective measure against the elements. Spent casings of
this variety will start to rust almost immediately, even if left exposed to overnight dew, and
within a matter of weeks will almost certainly degrade to the point of being nearly indis¬
cernible and probably of little investigative value. Another common feature of Russian-
sourced cartridges is a gold-colored primer. The projectiles are invariably copper jacketed.

The earliest Soviet-sourced cartridges that were imported to the United States were
characterized by the most cost-effective packaging possible, generally low-grade cardboard
boxes with plain white labels. Occasionally the producer’s icon would appear, but most
of the labels simply indicated the number and type of cartridge, along with the standard
warnings about lead content and keeping out of the reach of children. The practice con¬
tinued for quite some time and was overlapped by the gradual shift to more aesthetically
pleasing commercial-style packaging and brand names. Despite the presence of newly
minted Russian ammunition, a great deal of surplus Soviet-era cartridges remain avail¬
able. Commercial ammunition in bulk appears in cardboard cartons that contain card¬
board boxes of 20 rounds apiece. The cardboard cartons are generally basic and bear basic
information that is stencil printed; the individual boxes are commercially marked (see
Figure 3.7).

Military surplus ammunition will appear in metal tins, two tins per wooden crate.
Some Russian producers will sell commercial ammunition in military-specification sealed
metal tins, although this is readily recognized by the English language content stenciling,
as opposed to the Cyrillic used in the surplus containers. All Russian ammunition, whether

150

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 3.7 Contemporary Russian commercial ammunition boxes. Top row from left: Vympel
Golden Tiger; Tulammo. Middle row: Wolf Performance Ammunition. Bottom row from left:
Barnaul Silver Bear; Barnaul Tiger. (Image from author's collection.)

Cold War surplus or more contemporary production, are Berden primed, so reloading is
not likely, although it is not impossible. Older surplus ammunition can be expected to use
a corrosive priming compound, whereas contemporary production moved away from it
and now uses a noncorrosive compound. The residuals of the corrosive compound will
cause the bore to rust if not thoroughly cleaned either by hot soapy water or a dedicated
gun-cleaning solvent.

Soviet Factory Codes

Soviet factory codes underwent several shifts in the twentieth century. Predating the
Second World War, a mixture of Cyrillic characters, letters, and numbers were used that
can create confusion between dates and manufacturers, especially when compared against
wartime or Cold-War-era head stamps. Character Jl at 12 o’clock represented the Lugansk
plant in the 1910s to 1920s. These casings will be stamped with a year of manufacture. In
roughly the same time period, the Ulyanovsk Cartridge Works used C or y at the 6 o’clock
position with a date at the 12 o’clock position. The marking II was used by Podolsk. The
Tula Cartridge Works used T until replaced by the number 539 during the Second World
War, which was again replaced by a triangle in 1945-46. Around the time of the onset of
World War II, the marking practices were somewhat standardized to a numerically based
code system, with each munitions plant being assigned a particular number, although
some confusion was created by the forced relocations of entire factories. The old factory
numbers were retained when factory relocations took place during the German invasion,
although they were established in new locations and perhaps under different names.

Numerous numeric codes have been observed and some identified: 3 (Ulyanovsk),
3B (Ulyanovsk, possibly an ancillary plant), 7 (Vympel), 10 (identity not confirmed), 17

Cartridge Head Stamps

151

(Podolsk initially but also used by Barnaul*), 38 (Yuryuzan), 44 (identity not confirmed),
46 (Sverdlovsk), 50 (possibly Penza), 54 (Nytva), 58 (identity not confirmed), 60 (Frunze
Machine Tool Plant), 179 (Novosibirsk), f 184 (identity not confirmed), 187 (Tula), 188
(Novosibirsk or Klimovsk), 270 (Lugansk), 304 (Kunceskij), 528 (identity not confirmed),
529 (New Lyalya), 531 (identity not confirmed), 539 (Tula Cartridge Works), 540 (Irkutsk),
541 (Chelyabinsk), 543 (Kazan), 544 (Glazov), 545 (Chkalov), 547 (identity not confirmed),
611 (identity not confirmed), 710 (Podolsk), and 711 (Klimovsk).

From 1949 through 1957, a series of letters were used in lieu of numerical dates,
stamped in the 6 o’clock position. These alphabetic values have been confused to mean a
new series of manufacturer codes; however, it seems that they actually represent a year of
production: A 1949, B 1950, B 1951, T 1952, 1953, E 1954, M 1955, K 1956, and 1957 JI. A

star or stars may be observed in the 9 and/or 3 o’clock positions, especially in cartridges
produced between 1933 and 1940 (Watson III 1984).

The 7.62x25mm cartridges manufactured before 1942 were not head stamped because
they solely originated from the Tula Cartridge Works. The 7.62x25mm cartridges that have
been observed with plant number and dates were likely produced when manufacturing
was expanded to other facilities in the later stages of World War II or immediately postwar.
It is highly unlikely that wartime ammunition of this caliber would be encountered outside
of collector circles.

The Russian Federation

Within the Russian Federation are producers that actively market cartridges around the
world. These companies manufacture ammunition to military and commercial specifica¬
tions. As with all military cartridges, within a specific caliber there is a variety of cartridges
for particular applications. Commercial ammunition is either the ball- or hollow-point-
type projectiles that are marked “hunting cartridges.” The manufacturers have expanded
their product lines to include many popular handgun- and long-gun-caliber cartridges,
and even shot shells and ammunition-loading components, mostly primers. Center-fire
and rim-fire cartridges manufactured by Russian munitions producers have not changed
the materials used in the construction of the traditional military-caliber cartridges, steel
casings, and copper-jacketed projectiles.

Ammunition, along with weapons, was currency that the Soviet Union used as foreign
policy instruments. This fact, coupled with the popularity of Soviet-sourced weapons, the
AK rifle in particular, ensures that Russian-sourced ammunition is likely to be encoun¬
tered anywhere in the world where weapons that chamber their standard calibers are in
use. Russian-sourced cartridges started appearing in the United States in the mid-1990s as
trade restrictions were relaxed between the nations. The timing could not have been better.
Imports of Chinese AK- and SKS-type rifles and their inexpensive ammunition had been
cut off in the United States, and the Russian exports arrived just in time to fill the void.

Additional historical information on this will appear in the material about Barnaul in the following
section.

+ There is controversy over whether Novosibirsk was code 179 or 188. Likely both codes were used, ini¬
tially 179 but later 188, when Novosibirsk remained in service after the war and was independent of
technical assistance from Klimovsk.

152

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Presently, the Russian ammunition manufacturers hold a large market share, and there
has been considerable movement within the industry in terms of collaborations and dis¬
solutions of partnerships. The Russian-based firms presently enjoy a large market presence,
and until relatively recently, it could be a challenge to discern the product of one manufac¬
turer versus another when relying strictly upon brand names and packaging alone. There
likely was a lot of collaboration between the Russian firms in the infancy of the capital¬
ist experience in the 1990s, and this remains true in certain instances. Inasmuch as the
Russian firms have entered into the commercial ammunition sector, especially in North
America, they remain firmly committed to meeting the demands for the military markets
as well. The proliferation of Russian-sourced weapons around the world ensures a steady
market demand for the ammunition used by the arms, even in areas where localized pro¬
duction of ammunition is taking place, as the local product may not be to the quality or
the quantity desired.

Federal State Enterprise Production’s Amursk Cartridge Plant “Vympel”

The Federal State Enterprise Production’s Amursk Cartridge Plant “Vympel” is located
in the far east of the Russian Federation. Vympel was a latecomer to the Soviet military-
industrial complex, coming online in 1982. Initially, Vympel was set up to exclusively
manufacture the 5.45x39mm cartridge, but as soon as the plant realized their production
goals, the Soviet Union collapsed. As with other Russian firms, Vympel entered the inter¬
national ammunition market; it sells commercially in the United States under the name
Golden Tiger. Vympel expanded its production line to include hunting/sporting cartridges
in addition to military-specification cartridges. Production includes not only the stan¬
dard Russian 7.62x54mmR, 7.62x39mm, 5.45x39mm, and 9x18mm Makarov, but also
9x19mm, 5.56x45mm, .45 ACP, .308 Winchester, .30 Carbine, and shot shells (Golden Tiger
Ammunition n.d.). Soviet-era cartridges originating from Vympel were head stamped “7”
but now appear with the Vympel trademark: the Cyrillic B; however, cartridges marked
7 may still be encountered, as surplus Soviet-era ammunition is still commonly found.
Civilian ammunition includes both full-metal-jacketed ball and hollow-point projectiles.

Joint Stock Company’s Barnaul Machine Tool Plant

According to information from the company website, Joint Stock Company’s Barnaul
Machine Tool Plant produced half of the ammunition used by the Russian army during the
Second World War. Located in Barnaul, Russia, the ammunition manufacturing division
of Barnaul is now officially called the Barnaul Cartridge Plant CJSC (Closed Joint Stock
Company) and continues to manufacture cartridges for both military clients and the com¬
mercial sector (Barnaul Cartridge Plant n.d.).

Barnaul cartridges bore the Podolsk head stamp “17” from 1941 to 1942 and “17a” from
1942 to 1948. It then reverted to 17 in 1948 and remained so until 1990. Soviet military sur¬
plus 5.45x39mm cartridges bearing 1980s production dates and factory number 17 have
been observed in the United States and are available by retail. During the Second World
War, machinery from Podolsk, Lugansk, and Moscow was transferred to Barnaul to escape
the advancing German army. Contemporary Barnaul production has been stamped with
either the company logo or the Cyrillic BL13, somewhat resembling the English letters bp3,
but more stylized. It would appear that Barnaul has transitioned (or is in the process of
transitioning) to the EIT3 and phasing the company logo out, which somewhat resembles
the logo used by Microsoft for Windows.

Cartridge Head Stamps

153

Barnaul began exporting ammunition to the United States and Europe in the mid-
1990s. Military-specification ammunition sold by Barnaul uses a lacquered steel case. On
commercial ammunition, Barnaul has plated-steel casings using nickel, zinc, and brass.
Barnaul also uses a polymer as a weather-resistant coating. In the years immediately fol¬
lowing the collapse of the Soviet Union, Barnaul may have collaborated with other manu¬
facturers to enter into the commercial market. Barnaul-produced cartridges have been sold
under the names Golden Bear, Silver Bear, and Brown Bear, which are differentiated by the
color of the casing. Brown Bear uses a lacquer-coated steel casing; Silver Bear uses a zinc-
plated casing; and Golden Bear uses a brass-encased steel casing. This marketing scheme
would appear to have been inspired by three breeds of bear in Russia. Cartridges sold as
Silver Bear have been observed with the Ulyanovsk head stamp; it is thus likely that there
were collaborations at various times between the manufacturers to fill orders. This anom¬
aly is probably not singular, and other exceptions could surface. Novosibirsk LVE may
also have been a partner in enterprise with Barnaul. Aside from the Bear lines, Barnaul
sold cartridges branded Monarch and under the name RAM (Russian Ammunition
Manufacturers). Barnaul may be phasing out the Bear lines in favor of segregating their
cartridges by the type of finish used on the casing material: lacquered, zinc-plated, brass-
plated, or polymer-coated steel.

Barnaul manufactures the standard Russian calibers, but has expanded their line to
include 5.56x45mm, .243,7.62x51mm, .30-06, and 9x19mm as well as 12-gauge and .410 shot
shells. Full and semijacketed projectiles are used in ball and hollow-point projectiles. Barnaul
manufactured a semijacketed ball projectile as well. Barnaul head stamps typically reflect the
trademark or Cyrillic characters and the caliber; however, a three-element design has been
observed that bears a 0. The most recent addition to the lineup is the Barnaul Centaur, which
uses a jacketed projectile supplied to them by the Hornady Manufacturing Company.

Joint Stock Company Tula Cartridge Works

Joint Stock Company’s Tula Cartridge Works, located in the city of Tula in the Russian
Federation, is one of the oldest continuously producing arsenals in the world. According to
the company, Tula was founded by Russian Emperor Alexander II in 1880. Tula Cartridge
Works was often abbreviated as TCW in the literature and on cartridge containers. The
company also reports that up until the late 1930s, brass was the preferred cartridge casing
material, but the practice was abandoned in favor of using bimetal (brass or copper over
steel) casings.

During the Second World War, Tula was forced to relocate industrial machinery to
escape the German invasion as it approached Moscow in late 1941. Much of the machin¬
ery was relocated to the city of Yuryuzan, some 850 miles eastward. This movement may
explain the appearance of cartridges attributed to production there bearing the head stamp
“38,” as there likely was leftover industrial capacity that was never transferred back to the
original factory site. Tula-produced cartridges have been identified by several head stamps,
including T, 539, TPZ, and TCW.

In early 2010, TulAmmo came onto the commercial market as a new brand name.
According to the company’s website, TulAmmo USA is a partnership between Tula and the
Ulyanovsk Cartridge Works. Retail packaging may be labeled with one or both names as the
ammunition source. Tula distanced itself from Wolf brand ammunition, stating that “the Tula
and Ulyanovsk Cartridge Works no longer support or produce any of the ‘Wolf’ brands of
ammunition” (TulAmmoUSA 2010). This statement at least implies that Tula and Ulyanovsk

154

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

may have had a business relationship as a supplier to the Wolf brand. Tula produced vanity
brand cartridges in the 1990s, such as B-West, and Tula became a major exporter of Russian
firearms to the United States at that time. B-West was the U.S. importing agent.

TulAmmo presently manufactures pistol calibers .380 ACP, 9x18mm Makarov,
9x19mm, .40 S&W, and .45 ACR The rifle cartridges offered are the .223 Remington,
5.45x39mm, 7.62x39mm, .30 Carbine, .308 Winchester, and the 7.62x54mmR. Blanks are
available in 7.62x39mm and 5.45x39mm and are identified by the “star” crimped casing
neck. Bimetal and steel are used to produce casings, and the steel casings are coated with
polymer. Large quantities of Tula-produced 5.45x39mm Soviet-era surplus ammunition
have been imported into the United States in the previously described sealed tins. These
cartridges are head stamped with the 539 factory code and were made in the 1970s. The
projectile is the 7n6 type, having a hardened steel core.

Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant

The Closed Joint Stock Company’s Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant, formally
known as the Joint Stock Company Klimovsk Stamping Plant, produces commercial, law
enforcement, and military ammunition in addition to a line of air rifles and other firearms.
Originally, the Klimovsk factory code was 188, but was later changed to 711. The code shar¬
ing with the Novosibirsk plant was likely due to the fact that they were once located in the
same city, Podolsk. During the Second World War, plant machinery was relocated east to
Novosibirsk, where a new plant was formed (later to become the Novosibirsk Low Voltage
Equipment Plant) using the head stamp 188; however, Western intelligence reports have
cited Klimovsk as factory number 711 (Watson III 1984). Presently, Klimovsk head stamps
their casings with their commercial logo, which resembles a teardrop shape containing a
circle that appears superimposed onto a square.

Klimovsk was among the first Russian manufacturers to produce ammunition that
reached the United States, circa 1995. Klimovsk produces one of the most extensive ammu¬
nition lines in the Russian Federation, which includes some of the more esoteric Russian-
originated cartridges such as the 9x39mm, the 5.66mm underwater cartridge, and the
9mm Traumatic cartridge. Klimovsk 7.62x39mm cartridges have either steel- or nickel-
plated casings, probably the only nickel-plated casings produced in the caliber. Klimovsk
produces several brands of .22 ammunition (the Russians use the metric 5.6mm designa¬
tion): Record, Temp, Standard, Standard-L, Match, Biathlon, Okhotnik, andTemp-PU (.22
short cartridge) (KSPZ 2011).

Novosibirsk Low Voltage Equipment Plant

The Novosibirsk Low Voltage Equipment Plant began cartridge production during the
Second World War. Its output centered on the 7.62x54mmR as well as the 12.7x108mm
cartridges, which it still produces. Since that time, it has expanded its line to include the
9x19mm, .380 ACP, 7.62x51mm, and .30-06 Springfield. The company advertises its prod¬
ucts for commercial, military, and law enforcement customers.

Unlike other Soviet state plants, Novosibirsk used a two-element head-stamp design:
the factory number 188 in the 12 o’clock position, with the year of production in the 6
o’clock position. This marking is to be expected on older surplus ammunition; however,
as the company continues to mark military ammunition in this fashion, the production
year must be viewed to ascertain when the cartridge was produced. Factory number 179
appears on wartime Novosibirsk cartridges. Commercial ammunition currently bears a

Cartridge Head Stamps

155

three-element design with the head stamp LVE (Low Voltage Equipment), the year of man¬
ufacture, as well as the caliber.

Novosibirsk has marketed assorted small-arms cartridges under various names,
including Kypu (observed on .380 ACP ammunition) as well as the labels Sobol, Surok,
Kosach, Junior, and Rubezh. A press release on the company website (January 26, 2009)
announced that these cartridge lines have been discontinued. The Sobol, Surok, and Junior
lines were .22 rim-fire cartridges. The Junior brand was head stamped with V. The boxes
were thin cardboard and had an animal resembling a rooster on the lid. These cartridges
were steel cased and loaded with the customary bare-lead projectiles. The Junior label has
been associated with Klimovsk by various sources; however, LVE claimed the line as theirs
while—in the same press release—also indicating that it has been discontinued (Joint-
Stock 2009).

Ulyanovsk Machinery Plant

The State Unitary Enterprise Production Association’s Ulyanovsk Machinery Plant is
located in the city of Ulyanovsk in the Russian Federation. The plant began operations
in 1917. For head-stamp purposes, the plant was recognized as Factory 3, but more
contemporary cartridges are identified by the plant trademark: two arrows pointing in
opposite directions to form a circle.

In the early 1990s, Ulyanovsk marketed its own ammunition commercially in
the United States under the name Sapsen, but this was apparently short-lived. This
may have been a result of a partnership with Barnaul on the Bear cartridge lines,
as Ulyanovsk-marked cartridges have been observed in Bear-marked packaging. In
2010, cartridges appeared on the U.S. market packaged with the Ulyanovsk trademark
exclusively. In addition to producing 7.62x39mm cartridges, Ulyanovsk has also pro¬
duced 9x19mm, .40 S&W, and possibly other calibers. Like ammunition from other
Russian producers, Ulyanovsk ammunition was sold around the world and likely can
be encountered anywhere. Tula Cartridge Works acquired Ulyanovsk some time in
the mid-2000s and has capitalized on their capacity to market ammunition under the
TulAmmo name.

Wolf Performance Ammunition

In the United States, Wolf is likely the most recognized Russian ammunition company.
There is some dispute as to Wolf’s status as a manufacturer, and various sources disagree as
to whether Wolf is a brand name underneath a manufacturer or is an industrial conglom¬
erate that brings together products from various sources and markets them under the Wolf
name. In an undated memo to consumers published on its website, Wolf sought to sepa¬
rate itself from other Russian Federation brands and stated that cartridges head stamped
by Wolf have been sold under the brand names Herter’s, TulAmmo, and Ulyanovsk, but
that these brands were not Wolf ammunition (Wolf Performance Ammunition 2011).
A statement from TulAmmo mirrors the claims by Wolf that there is no collaboration
between the two companies. Ammunition packaged as Wolf is head stamped WOLF;
however, there are numerous variations in the fonts used to mark the head stamp. Wolf
markets several different product lines that include using brass, bimetal, and steel casings.
In the instance of steel casings, there are inconsistencies in the casing material colors,
ranging in color from grey to brown to green. A hint at outsourcing by Wolf are the .22
cartridges head stamped with a crosshair that is sourced to the German firm SK Jagd und

156

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Sportsmunitions (part of the Nammo Group), although marketed as Wolf. Wolf cartridges
are available in all popular handgun and long-gun calibers, shot shells, and even primers.
Wolf is sold under several lines: Wolf Military Classic, Wolf Performance Ammunition,
and Wolf Gold.

As is the case with nearly all commercially available ammunition, the cartridges that
have their origin in Russia are produced in other nations as well. In Germany, 5.45x39mm
cartridges (sometimes referenced as .215 caliber) have been produced by Dynamit Nobel.
Prior to the appearance of Eastern Bloc calibers, particularly 7.62x39mm, there was very
little interest on the part of Western manufacturers to produce these calibers, principally
because of a relative lack of firearms that chambered them. Winchester and Federal car¬
tridges were probably the only companies that produced 7.62x39mm cartridges in the
United States, and they were produced to Western standards using brass casings and cop¬
per-jacketed projectiles. By comparison, these cartridges were expensive, and the cost of
the ammunition is certain to have impacted the market in such a way that very few manu¬
facturers would bring such a firearm to market. The few examples of American-produced
firearms chambered in 7.62x39mm were most notably the Ruger Mini-30 and the Colt
AR Sporter. The Ruger Mini-30 is exactly the same as the Ruger Mini-14 model, save for
the difference in caliber. The Colt AR Sporter was built off the venerable AR platform and
overtly resembles any other AR weapon. However, it was the influx of relatively inexpen¬
sive Chinese imports of arms chambered for the round, as well as inexpensive ammuni¬
tion, that focused American consumer interest.

The other Warsaw Pact nations produced the Soviet-standard cartridges during the
Cold War, as they were obliged to “toe the line” and standardize their arms with Soviet
practice. As was the case in all matters of industry under Soviet influence, whatever indus¬
trial capacity that existed was utilized; however, since these industries largely became
state-controlled interests and there was little, if any, room for private property or allusions
to such, facilities were given numbers to identify them.

Other Eastern European Sources
Bulgaria

Arsenal Joint Stock Company, located in Kazanlak, Bulgaria, was founded in 1878.
Originally, Arsenal was located in the town of Rousse, but it relocated to Kazanlak in 1924.
The company was formerly known as the Durjava Voenna Fabrika (D.V.F.) State Military
Works Kazanlak and solely served the requirements of the Bulgarian Army. In the early
1950s D.V.F. was assigned factory number 10, surrounded by two segmented circles. These
circles do not appear on the cartridge head stamps, but on the cartridge packaging (see
Figure 3.8). The 10 almost always appeared at the 12 o’clock position, with the two-digit
year in the 6 o’clock position. Between 1977 and 1989, the company was renamed as F.
Engels Machine Building Plant (Arsenal JSCo n.d.). Arsenal currently markets cartridges
in .22 (5.6x15mm), 5.45x39mm, 5.56x45mm, 7.62x39mm, 7.62x51mm, 9x18mm, 9x19mm,
and 12-gauge shot shells. Steel, brass, and bimetal (brass plating over steel) are used to con¬
struct casings, and shot shells are typically formed of plastic. Common to Eastern Bloc
practice, red or green sealant is present about the casing neck and primer opening. The
rifle cartridges are offered in soft (lead) or hard (steel) cores, tracer, and blank variants.

Cartridge Head Stamps

157

7a 2 line

r7i-»o-#D CIS-30-^,

4 4 0

»() ^

Figure 3.8 A sealed tin containing 440 7.62x54mm cartridges produced by Arsenal Bulgaria.
The twin circles surrounding the number 10 indicate the manufacturer; the second number
in the sequence, left of the manufacturer identification, is the production year. The caliber is
identified at the top and the number of pieces on the bottom. Soviet-era military ammunition
is similarly packaged and marked. (Image from author's collection.)

Bulgarian surplus 7.62x54mmR cartridges are especially prevalent on the surplus market,
often sold in 440-round brown tins (see Figure 3.8). Other Bulgarian markings include
the Cyrillic Jf, used in the immediate postwar years, coupled with the date and letter B.
Prewar, a lion, date, and B were used. In both cases, the head stamp was divided by lines
into four elements.

Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic)

The former nation of Czechoslovakia is another nation that enjoyed a well-established
armaments industry during its history, with the majority of the armaments industry
located in Slovakia. In 1992, the nation dissolved itself and split into the Czech Republic
and Slovakia (the Slovak Republic). Ceska zbrojovka (often simply called CZ) has been
a center of armament production since its founding in 1936. When Germany annexed
Czechoslovakia in 1939, they were quick to capitalize on CZ’s industrial capacity and
assigned ordnance code fnh to the firm. The head stamps Z or (z) have been attributed to
CZ in the prewar period, and the postwar code tgf has also been attributed to them. During
occupation, Argozet Brunn, also called “Waffenwerke Brunn,” in Bystrica, used ordnance
code dou. Munitionsfabriken Vlasim was assigned code ak. Nazi-era firearms, ammuni¬
tion, and other accoutrements bearing these codes still appear. The Prague-based muni¬
tions firm Sellier & Bellot dates back to 1825. In 1945, the Czech government nationalized
the company. In 1992, the company was denationalized and once again became a privately
held company. Sellier & Bellot has used SB, SBP, CB8cA, and S&B for its head stamp, but
used bxn in the 1950s-60s. In 2009, Sellier & Bellot was acquired by the Brazilian muni¬
tions firm Companhia Brasileirade Cartuchos S.A.

Additional codes such as aym, czo, dtp, and zv have been associated with post-1945
Czechoslovakian arms activity; however, their true identities have proven elusive, leading
to a great deal of speculation. There are likely other similar codes that have either been
confused with wartime German codes or have been lost to history. Povazske Strojarne/

158

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Povazska Bystrica was a state-operated company that used head stamp PS and X. In both
cases, the month and year were part of the head stamp, coupled with a Star of David. This
has often led to confusion in associating such cartridges with Israeli production.

East Germany

In keeping with Soviet standards and practices, East German munitions producers would
head stamp cartridges in a similar fashion, although a subtle variation was identified. The
01 marked in the 12 o’clock position on East German cartridges has been identified as the
ammunition lot number, not the factory number. Such cartridges were also marked 71,
apparently for the year of manufacture, 1971. Observed factory numbers are 04, 05, and
22. With respect to 04-marked casings, there is a date range of 1951 through 1990. In some
instances, the year was stamped inverted. Factory number 05 may also be marked simply
as 5; this variation has been reported within the date range of 1962-90.

There may have been upward of 20 different munitions plants producing ammunition
at one time or another in East Germany, most likely resurrected wartime factories that fell
within the borders of the country after it was partitioned. Not all of these factories may
have produced finished products, but may have been subcontractors producing the com¬
ponents such as powder, casings, and primers. East German plants produced the German
7.92x57mm and 7.92x33mm cartridges as well as the Russian 7.62x39mm and possibly
7.62x54mmR and 9x18mm Makarov cartridges. Although marked and packaged as East
German, species of 7.92x33mm cartridges may bear wartime German ordnance markings,
since it is likely that much of the ammunition, at least initially, was repacked from wartime
leftovers, and incomplete components were manufactured into finished cartridges.

Figure 3.9 shows 7.92x57mm cartridges produced before and after the Second World
War in East Germany, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Denmark.

Figure 3.9 (See color insert.) The 7.92x57mm cartridge remained popular even after the Second
World War, and production continued because of its widespread use around the world and the
large amount of surplus German arms in circulation. Top row from left: East Germany Factory
04 (I960); Prvi Partizan, Yugoslavia (1955); Kirilckale/Ankara, Turkey (1940); and prewar German
production (1934)—note P126 code. Bottom row from left: Two variations of Czechoslovakian
production by Povazske Strojarne/Povazslca Bystrica (late 1940s); and Ammunitions Arsenalet
Denmark (1954), often called the 8mm Mauser. (Image from author's collection.)

Cartridge Head Stamps

159

Hungary

MFS 2000 Hungarian Ammunition Manufacturing Inc. is currently the sole producer of
small-arms ammunition located in Hungary. This company was originally founded in 1952
as Matravideki Femmuvek. Like other nations under the influence of the Soviet Union,
it produced cartridges to Soviet specifications, using factory number 21. To distinguish
Hungarian factory number 21 from other uses of the numeral (as in the case of the Radom
Arsenal in Poland and the CUGIR Arsenal in Romania), the date was stamped right side
up, relative to the center of the casing. Unlike typical Eastern Bloc practice, the last two
digits of the date were stamped in the 6 o’clock position, the factory code at 12 o’clock. In
1995 the company was privatized as part of a Canadian-Hungarian joint venture, and then
called MFS, Ltd.; however, it reverted back to state control in 1998. It would later return to
private ownership under the name MFS Inc., and finally it passed into the hands of RUAG
Ammotec in 2008. The company currently produces popular handgun and rifle cartridges
for both civilian and military customers. The head stamp MFS has been used exclusively
on newly minted ammunition. Factory number 21 will be seen on military-type packaging
containers of Cold-War-era surplus ammunition. Hungarian 7.62x54mmR ammunition
is often encountered, manufactured in the 1970s. The casings are constructed of gray steel
and have a red sealant applied around the primer and casing neck.

Femaru-Fegyver-es Gepgyar Reszvenytarsasag, often simply called “Fegyver” and
based in Budapest, was the principal supplier of small arms to Hungary. The firm was
founded in 1891 and remained in operation until 2004. Their products were marked FEG.
Ammunition originating from FEG was head stamped F-GY or by factory number 23.
With respect to date and factory number, the stamping practice coincides with those of
Matravideki Femmuvek. Due to the historical relationship between Austria and Hungary,
historical ammunition may be associated with Austrian firms.

Poland

Poland has long maintained an indigenous arms industry, although it seems that it has
served foreign powers as often as the needs of Poland. With the collapse of the Eastern Bloc,
Poland began divesting itself of surplus arms and ammunition through various channels,
and surplus Polish ammunition and arms are quite common in the United States. There
were numerous arms factories in Poland, some predating the Second World War. MESKO
was founded in 1923 as the National Ammunition Manufactory (Bumar Amunicja S.A.
2011). Under Soviet influence, MESKO products were identified by a single circle around
the number 21, but more recently the stamp MESKO is used. The company is now known
as MESKO S.A., part of the Bumar Group, “which consists of 20 manufacturing defense
sector companies specializing in munitions, radars, rockets and armour, vehicles, 2
trade companies and 6 foreign entities” (Bumar s.p. z o.o. 2011). At present, the company
offers an extensive line of small-arms ammunition produced to both NATO and Russian
standards and in calibers specific to either. Ammunition offerings include the NATO
5.56x45mm, 7.62x51mm, and the 9x19mm, and the Russian 7.62x39mm, 7.62x54mmR,
and the 9x18mm Makarov. As can be expected, any given cartridge is offered as soft core,
hard core, tracer, pressure proof, and blank variants. Both brass and steel are used for
casing construction. Reduced-ricochet variants are offered in 9mm Makarov, 9x19mm,
7.62x39mm, and 7.62x51mm. These cartridges are intended for short-range training appli¬
cations and apparently have a projectile completely or partially constructed of polymer.

160

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Another Polish arsenal is Fabryka Broni Radom. During the Cold War, Radom was
identified by a single circle surrounding the number 11. Radom products have a four-
element head stamp bearing the circle 11 and three other numerals; the numeral to the left
of the factory number is the year of manufacture. The materials and appearance of such
cartridges are atypical for Warsaw Pact practice. The Radom name has become generic for
the handguns manufactured at the Radom arsenal; however, Radom also manufactured
rifles. Cold-War-era firearms originating from Radom will also bear the circle 11 mark¬
ing. Radom does not appear to manufacture ammunition, and remains solely in the arms
business as part of the Bumar Group. Radom does market arms in the United States under
the name Pioneer Arms. Their line includes handguns, shotguns, rifles, and combination
guns.

Factory code 343 represents the State Arsenal at Krupski Mlyn. Factory number 54
was assigned to the Arsenal de Skarzysko-Kamienna. Factory number 234 is associated
with Poland but not specifically identified to a particular firm or facility.

Romania

In 1945, Romania came under the sphere of Soviet influence and produced arms and
ammunition pursuant to Soviet requirements. Around 1957, the head stamps 21, 22, and
RPR (translated to mean “People’s Republic of Romania”) appeared. The factory code was
positioned at 12 o’clock and the date at 6 o’clock. The head stamps 15,321,322,323,324,325,
and PA have been attributed to Romania but not identified. Prior to and during the Second
World War, cartridges were marked CMC at the 12 o’clock position, caliber at the 6 o’clock
position, and the year split across at the 9 and 3 o’clock positions. SC Uzina Mecanica
CUGIR, SA, is a Romanian arms and ammunition producer and formerly used the 21 head
stamp. CUGIR also represents one of the largest exporters of AK-pattern firearms to the
United States using the names Romarm, Romak, WASR, and CUGIR. Commercially pack¬
aged ammunition originating from CUGIR is marketed under the name Hot Shot; how¬
ever, the brand name was also used to market cartridges manufactured by Prvi Partizan
in Serbia as well as from South Korea by PMC. Factory number 22 has been observed, but
its identity is not known.

Ukraine

The Frunze Machine Tool Plant is now called the Sumy Frunze Machine-Building
Science and Production Association, having completed privatization in 2000. According
to the company website, Frunze was founded in 1896 and began producing military
articles in 1914. During the Second World War, Frunze was dispersed to the cities of
Tambov, Chirchik, Chelyabinsk (factory number 541), and Kemerovo. Postwar, Frunze
became engaged in petroleum and chemical industries, among other endeavors (JSC
Sumy Frunze NPO n.d.). Frunze likely continued ammunition production right up until
the collapse of the Soviet Union. For the purposes of identification, Frunze was fac¬
tory 60. Frunze ammunition in 5.45x39mm and 7.62x54mmR has been observed in the
United States. The Lugansk Cartridge Plant is also located in the Ukraine. The company
is currently operating under the name Joint Stock Company Lugansk Cartridge Plant.
Significant quantities of Russian Cold-War-era 5.45x39mm ammunition that has come
to market in the United States was produced by Lugansk in the 1970s, akin to the Tula

Cartridge Head Stamps

161

and Frunze products. These Soviet-era specimens will bear the 270 factory number and
the last two digits of the date. Observed commercial examples of Lugansk-produced car¬
tridges marketed under the name Lugammo bear the Cyrillic head stamp Jl. Calibers
in production are the 7.62x39mm Soviet M43, the 5.45x39mm Soviet M74, and the
9x18mm Makarov cartridges.

Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia as a nation disintegrated amid conflict in 1990 when the newly formed Republic
of Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia, followed by the formation of three more independent
states: Croatia in 1991, then Bosnia, and finally Macedonia in 1992. When the Dayton
Peace Accords were signed in 1994 and peace was restored, the former Yugoslavia had bro¬
ken into six independent states: Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro,
Serbia, and Slovenia.

Munitions production in Yugoslavia resumed in 1948, having halted at the end of hostil¬
ities in 1945, and throughout the 1950s, Soviet marking practices were observed, using fac¬
tory numbers 11,12, and 14. The factory number appears at the 12 o’clock position, two-digit
year at 6 o’clock, and stars stamped at 9 and 3 o’clock positions. This practice was replaced by
using two-, three-, or four-digit abbreviations to designate the manufacturer. These abbrevi¬
ations can appear as either Roman characters or in Cyrillic. EIGN, ATZ, and PG are known
Yugoslavian manufacturers, but their identities have not been firmly established.

Founded in 1950, P.D. Igman d.d. is a munitions manufacturer located in Konjic,
Bosnia-Herzegovina. The company claims to be one of the largest European produc¬
ers of ammunition ranging from the 5.56x45mm to the 12.7mm and has “exported its
products in more than 60 countries on all continents” (PD Igman d.d. 2005). Unlike
other Eastern European nations, Igman-produced ammunition was made using brass
casings, including 7.62x39mm Soviet M43 (but identified as M67), 7.92x57mm Mauser,
and .50 BMG. These cartridges resemble Western-standard ammunition; however,
they can be readily identified by their head stamp. Igman head stamps J4K and IK are
observed and are combined with various combinations of caliber and two-digit date.
Igman produced ammunition under contract for other brand names, in addition to
Igman-labeled ammunition.

Prvi Partizan is a munitions manufacturer based in the town of Uzice, in southwest¬
ern Serbia. The firm was founded in 1928 as the Arms and Ammunition Factory Uzice,
abbreviated as FOMU (Prvi Partizan 2009). Prvi Partizan translated from Serbian lit¬
erally means “first partisan,” and it currently produces one of the widest arrays of car¬
tridges of any company in the world for military and commercial sectors. The company
has invested heavily in older and even archaic European cartridges such as .303 British,
7.5x54mm French, and 7.92x33 kurz, but not to the exclusion of more contemporary car¬
tridges with broader market appeal. The current head stamp is PPU; previously, it was the
Serbian Cyrillic equivalent IHiy (see Figure 3.10) or Roman characters PP. The head stamp
PP-YU is associated with Prvi Partizan and likely means “Prvi Partizan Yugoslavia,” which
would date specimens with this mark to having been made before 1990. Like Igman, Prvi
Partizan manufactured cartridges that were sold under different brand names. Hansen
Cartridge Company was a brand name in the United States but was actually manufactured
by Prvi Partizan. The head stamp was HCC. During the Cold War, Prvi Partizan was
called factory number 11.

162

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 3.10 (See color insert.) Ammunition under investigation in Baghdad, Iraq, in 2006.
Closer inspection of the casing head stamp reveals IHIY for Prvi Partizan; the year 2002 is also
marked. Other identifying characteristics to look at include the brass casing and the distinc¬
tively red primer sealant, a color unique to Prvi Partizan. (U.S. Air Force image; photograph by
Technical Sgt. Adrian Cadiz.)

A smaller, less well-known name in the Yugoslavian munitions industry was Valor. The
company appears to have only manufactured .22 cartridges. The letter V was used as the
head stamp. In Slovenia, Arex d.o.o. manufactures plastic and metal/plastic practice ammu¬
nition in any NATO caliber up to 12.7x99mm. What is unique about this product is the use
of plastic links for belt-fed weapons (Arex d.o.o. 2011). Coal Ltd., another Slovenian firm,
exclusively manufactures air-gun pellets in the 4.5mm and 5.5mm class (Coal Ltd. 1996).

Firearms

Introduction

The variety of firearms is nearly endless, bound only by the imaginations of the designers
and engineers who bring concepts and ideas to fruition. The art and science of gun making
has changed dramatically over the course of the history of firearms. Firearms predating
the Industrial Revolution were, for all practical purposes, handmade and hand fitted by
artisan craftsmen. With the development of mass production and interchangeable parts,
gun making changed dramatically, but there was still a substantial amount of handwork
that went into producing the final product. Guns were made slowly and expensively of
high-grade materials; parts were machined and milled from steel blanks. Wood was the
choice for th e furniture, another term used to describe the stock, grips, and hand guard.
The finishing process was bluing, a form of aesthetically pleasing rust, or case hardening,
which hardened a softer metal by coating it with a harder material. The fit and finish of
even the average firearm exhibited attention to detail and was the mark of the artisans on
the finishing line.

The outbreak of the First World War changed gun making. Such was the need for
firearms that manufacturing shortcuts had to be found in the interest of economy and
expediting the production process; however, the basic paradigm of firearm manufactur¬
ing did not substantially change. Firearms were still mostly made of machined parts, still
exquisitely finished, and stocks and furniture were still made of wood. High-gloss blued
finishes translated to duller, matte blue, but quality remained high. Great advancements
had been made in industrial production, and the result was a high-quality product—a
harmonious balance between mass production and quality artisanship. During the course
of the Second World War, gun making would be forever changed. Once again, the war¬
time demand for armaments stretched even the mightiest industrial bases. Blued finishes
remained the standard, but increasingly were replaced with a newer, faster, and less expen¬
sive process: Parkerizing, also called phosphate or bonderizing. Enamels were also used
in lieu of other finishing practices, and in extreme instances, parts or entire firearms were
left “in the white,” completely unfinished. Most guns continued to be manufactured by
machining processes, but increasingly parts—and then whole guns—were produced from
stamped sheet metal, from investment casting, and forging. The classification of firearms,
particularly less expensive handguns, often referenced as Saturday night specials, tended to
be constructed of parts that were fabricated by investment casting (Figure 4.1). The 1960s
and 1970s saw the rise of this type of firearm from foreign and domestic sources as well as
hybrids that were pieced together from foreign-sourced parts and assembled in the United
States.

By the 1970s, technology had evolved to the point where the use of polymers to manu¬
facture frames or receivers became a viable option to the firearm manufacturer. Up to that
time, polymers had been used in firearm construction on a limited basis, mostly for parts

163

164

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.1 (See color insert.) The Raven MP-25. Part of the identification markings are on left
side of the slide (pictured); the model and caliber are on the opposite side. The serial number
is stamped on the back strap of the grip. The Raven pistols are grouped as one of the Saturday
night specials,- untold millions were made, and they routinely turn up. (Image from author's
collection.)

such as grip panels, hand guards, and other nonmechanical parts. During World War II,
Germany made extensive use of the composite Bakelite as well as another composite mate¬
rial called Durofol. In 1959, Remington Arms introduced the Nylon 66, a .22 rifle that
featured a composite stock, although the barrel and receiver were of conventional steel
construction. In 1970, Heckler & Koch marketed the first polymer-framed handgun, the
VP-70. Two versions were available: a standard pistol and a similar pistol capable of being
made into a machine gun by attachment of a shoulder stock. The slide was finished in either
a black parkerized finish or stainless steel. The VP-70 was a blowback-operated pistol, hav¬
ing a fixed barrel, and was double action only. Firing was accomplished by means of a
striker system that was cocked and released strictly by trigger press. A push-button, cross¬
bar-type safety was available and placed on the trigger guard, more customary for long
guns than pistols, but an effective system nonetheless. Although not commercially suc¬
cessful and discontinued in 1989, H&K did set the stage for a new generation of handguns.

The decision to transition to polymer frames, while controversial at the time, was a logical
one given the fact that polymer was proven to be an effective alternative to metal. Polymer is
lightweight, corrosion proof, and durable. Economics cannot be discounted as a factor, either.
By the 1980s, many firearms that had been manufactured by traditional machine operations
were being redesigned to be manufactured by CNC (computer numerical control) machin¬
ery. In general terms, it could take approximately 20 hours of traditional machine operations,
typically involving skilled human machinists every step of the way, to manufacture a fire¬
arm frame. The manufacturing time was reduced to some 6 hours using CNC machinery.
A polymer frame can be molded in a matter of minutes. The economic incentive is obvious
when these numbers are considered. By the mid-1990s, most handgun manufacturers were
producing polymer-framed firearms, and many other gun makers opened their doors as the
economic viability of entering the pistol market became more realistic.

In its most basic form, the firearm can be considered a machine. A machine completes
a series of operations to accomplish work; it is the work of a firearm to expel a projec¬
tile under force of an explosive. Like all machines, there are seemingly endless varieties

Firearms

165

of approaches that have been explored to build a “better,” “improved,” or “safer” firearm,
leading to a multitude of different methods of function and operation. Firearms produced
by different firms may bear similarities or may even be overt copies of another design, but
even in similar designs there is likely to be some variation in parts design or purpose to
avoid patent infringements. A firearm is functioned by the press of a trigger. The move¬
ment of the trigger initiates a sequence of movements of connected parts that can be called
a firing train. Typically, the trigger acts against a part called the sear. Sears take on differ¬
ent physical appearances, and there may be other conjoined components inserted, such
as a trigger bar, which may itself contain or act as the sear as a single piece, as opposed to
parts that mechanically interact with one another. The sear moves to release a hammer,
which then strikes a firing pin that causes the chambered ammunition cartridge to deto¬
nate. Firearms without internal or external hammers replace that part of the action with
a striker that acts upon the primer of the loaded cartridge. This striker interacts with the
trigger and firing train through a mechanical linkage and is typically “cocked” by spring
pressure.

The action of the firearm can be prevented through a safety device, which can be
effected through numerous methods and approaches. A safety need not necessarily be
dependent on the operator to enable or disable it by act of manipulation. In lieu of manu¬
ally operated safety features, some firearms feature an automatic safety system. Automatic
safety systems have been part of firearm design for many years. A common misconception
is that a firearm without a manual safety is somehow inherently unsafe, but quite the con¬
trary is true. As long as the automatic safety has not been compromised by modifications
or alterations to the firearm, it provides a positive safety feature that is not dependent upon
the operator to remember whether or not it is enabled. And from a technical point of view,
these “passive” safety features are at least as effective as “active” safety features when con¬
sidered individually or as part of a more comprehensive set of safety features in a particular
design.

Firearms have been independently designed in many nations throughout the world.
The names associated with the classic designs are evidence of the diversity of thought and
philosophical approaches to design that have been undertaken. The names of the designers
have become synonymous with the legacy of the firearms they designed—John Browning,
John Garand, Gaston Glock, Mikhail Kalashnikov, Paul Mauser, Eugene Stoner, Kijiro
Nambu, and Karl Walther, to name but a few. John Browning is considered the most pro¬
lific firearm designer of all time; he developed all forms of firearms, ranging from hand¬
guns to machine guns, shotguns, and rifles of all types. Regardless of who developed and
refined a particular principle of operation, these ideas are borrowed, perhaps slightly mod¬
ified, and often produced—either with or without the benefit of securing the legal rights to
do so. Under the surface, firearms can be so similar that differences between them are just
wide enough to avoid a patent dispute. In spite of intellectual property rights, many fire¬
arms have been reverse engineered and put into production without the rights ever being
secured. As a result, the same firearm could have been built in any number of places in the
world, over any given period, and given any number of different names.

United States Domestic Firearm Production for 2011

According to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives 2011 Interim
Annual Firearms Manufacturing and Export Report, licensed American manufacturers

166

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

produced 6,398,854 firearms during the calendar year. The type and number manufac¬
tured were reported as follows (BATFE 2011):

2,487,786 pistols

572,798 revolvers

2,293,247 rifles

862,293 shotguns

182,730 miscellaneous firearms*

According to this same report, 291,342 firearms were exported, comprising 116,014 pis¬
tols, 23,221 revolvers, 78,765 rifles, 54,878 shotguns, and 18,464 miscellaneous firearms.
The 2011 interim numbers are well in excess of industry activity reported in 2010, when
5,459,240 firearms were manufactured. 2010 represented a very slight decline from 2009,
when 5,555,818 firearms were manufactured. In the time period studied in this report,
1986 through 2010, there were only four years where annual firearm production totals
exceeded 5,000,000. Those years were 2009, 2010, and 1993 and 1994, where manufacturers
reported 5,055,637 and 5,173,217 firearms manufactured respectively (Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, 2012). This spike in manufacturing activity in 1993 and
1994 is attributed by the author to market anticipation of the enacting of the “Public Safety
and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act” portion of the Violent Crime Control and
Law Enforcement Act, which took effect September 13, 1994 and was allowed to sunset
after 10 years. According to this same report, 2011 firearm imports into the United States
totaled 3,252,404; a number not seen since 1993 when 3,043,321 firearms were imported
(Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, 2012).

Firearm Import Trends

In 2011 Brazil was the leading exporter of small arms into the United States. According
to the BATFE, 846,619 Brazilian sourced firearms entered the country, consisting of just
under 360,000 handguns, 381,000 rifles, and just over 105,000 shotguns. 1 Austria was the
second leading point of origin, with a total of almost 523,000 firearms exported, the vast
majority of which, some 515,000, were pistols. According to BATFE, in 2011 alone a total of
3,252,404 firearms were exported into the United States from twenty-eight nations (Bureau
of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, 2012). In consideration of the supplied
data, when these imports are coupled with domestic production (minus exports) a total of
9,359,916 firearms entered the marketplace in the United States in 2011.

Contemporary Trends in the Federal Prosecution of Firearms Offenses

A recent study by Bowling and Frandsen (2010) focusing on federal firearm offenses
found that a total of 8,595 persons were charged with federal firearms offenses in fiscal

Miscellaneous firearms are defined as any firearm not specifically categorized in any of the firearms
categories defined on the ATF Form 5300.11 (Annual Firearms Manufacturing and Exportation Report).
Examples of miscellaneous firearms would include pistol grip firearms, starter guns, and firearm frames
and receivers (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, 2012).

+ The author has rounded the actual figures.

Firearms

167

year 2008. The overwhelming majority of these cases were filed for violations of the
provisions of the Gun Control Act (GCA), accounting for 8,320 of the total. Of those,
“60% of defendants in cases filed and 61% of defendants in cases closed under the
GCA were charged with a violation of subsection 922(g), which makes it unlawful
for nine types of prohibited persons to ship, transport, possess, or receive a firearm.”
A total of 228 cases were filed under violations of the National Firearms Act (NFA).
“Almost 58% of NFA cases filed in FY2008 charged a defendant with a violation of
subsection 5861(d), which prohibits receipt or possession of an unregistered firearm”*
(Bowling and Frandsen 2010). The remaining 47 filed cases were violations of the
Arms Export and Control Act, the majority of which falling under subsection 2778(b),
“which requires registration and licensing of persons who engage in manufacturing,
exporting, or importing of defense articles or services” (Bowling and Frandsen 2010).
These numbers represent a decrease from fiscal year 2007, when 8,935 defendants were
charged, and well below fiscal year 2006, when 9,617 cases were filed. In consideration
of the overall numbers, the proportions of violations remained relatively constant in
the period studied.

Firearm Classification Types

There are two broad classifications of firearms: handguns and long guns. The classifica¬
tion is determined by the physical characteristics that embody the device. When a firearm
frame or receiver is manufactured, the manufacturer affixes a serial number and deter¬
mines what type of firearm the finished product is: a handgun, rifle, shotgun, etc. Once this
determination is made, that receiver is defined by that determination and is subject to any
potential restrictions imposed upon it in terms of its configuration. However, firearms are
frequently remanufactured or reconfigured to specifications outside their original design.
Such alterations may be simple, obvious moves (such as a changing a stock or rebarrel-
ing), or they could be more obscure (such as modifying the action). When examining a
firearm, it is important to first ascertain what type of firearm the exhibit originally was,
and then work forward to address any potential modifications that may exist, internally or
externally. It is quite common for a manufacturer to produce the same basic firearm in a
plurality of configurations.

Handguns

Handguns can range from very compact and concealable firearms to large-framed, full-
sized models that are less readily concealable but whose design philosophy calls from
something other than concealment as a primary attribute. Handguns, as such, are not
subject to restrictions on barrel length, either minimum or maximum. Handguns are
further grouped by their operating characteristic: revolvers, semiautomatic pistols, f

For the purposes of the text, a firearm under the National Firearms Act would include machine guns,
short-barreled rifles and shotguns, as well as any other weapons, destructive devices, and silencers. These
types of firearms must have had the appropriate transfer tax paid and be registered into the National
Firearms Registration and Transfer Record.

+ There are pistols capable of fully automatic flre ; they are discussed further under machine guns.

168

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.2 High Standard Sentinel R-106 revolver chambered in .22 caliber. (Image from
author's collection.)

single-shot breech loaders, and derringers. In the most ordinary sense, handguns are
designed to fire the smaller caliber cartridges, but more realistically, handguns are pro¬
duced to fire nearly any cartridge. This simply necessitates a larger, bulkier handgun
capable of handling the higher pressures generated by firing more powerful ammuni¬
tion. Handguns designed for larger cartridges, including those attributed to long guns,
are either pistol versions of long guns or are specialty weapons that are not common to
the criminal context.

Revolvers

A revolver is “a projectile weapon, of the pistol type, having a breech-loading chambered
cylinder so arranged that the cocking of the hammer or movement of the trigger rotates it
and brings the next cartridge in line with the barrel for firing” (ATF 2002). The principal
feature of the revolver is how it derives its name—a rotating cylinder contained within the
frame of the firearm (see Figure 4.2). Within the cylinder are a series of holes called charge
holes, where the ammunition is loaded and stored until fired. After firing, the spent casing
remains encased in the cylinder until removed.

Firearms capable of multiple shots from a rotating cylinder before requiring reloading
appeared as early as the 1500s; however, it was not until the mid-1800s that revolvers, in the
form that would be recognizable today, started to appear. The breech-loaded, as opposed to
muzzle-loaded, handgun with a rotating cylinder was patented in 1856 by Smith & Wesson,
introducing the use of self-contained ammunition cartridges to the handgun arena. It is a
common assumption that the capacity of all revolvers is six cartridges, but this is not true.
Most revolvers have a capacity of six cartridges, but the capacity can vary from four to nine
cartridges. A capacity of five can be expected in small-frame revolvers that are designed for
concealed carry; conversely, large-frame revolvers such as the Smith & Wesson X-Frame
have a capacity of seven. In smaller caliber revolvers, as in the case of the .22, nine-shot
medium- and full-frame revolvers are common. Revolvers are manufactured in small or
compact frames, medium frame, and full-sized and even oversized frame sizes. Barrel
lengths vary from 2 inches upwards to 13 inches or more, with 4-, 5-, and 6-inch barrel
lengths being the most prevalent. Oddball barrel lengths of five and one-half inch or eight
and three-eighth inch were also produced.

Firearms

169

While Colt and Smith & Wesson are the most recognized American nameplates
attached to revolvers, such firms as Charter Arms, Clerke Technicorp, Harrington &
Richardson (H&R), Hopkins & Allen, Iver Johnson, Remington, Ruger, and the US
Revolver Company round off the industry. Colt preferred to name their revolver mod¬
els, for example Detective Special, Official Police, Trooper, Commando, Regulation Police,
New Service, Navy Model, and Python, to name a few. Smith & Wesson named their mod¬
els or used a year of introduction until 1957, when they switched to using model num¬
bers, including for automatic pistols when they were introduced. Prior to the switchover to
model numbers, Smith & Wesson identified their revolvers to a year and/or a name, such
as the Model of the 1905, which was also called the M&P for “Military and Police,” a name
resurrected recently by Smith & Wesson for a new line of products that includes revolvers,
autos, and rifles. In a single instance, a Colt and a Smith & Wesson product were identified
by the same model, Model 1917, which was a U.S. martial model number. Smith & Wesson
maintains production and has returned to producing desirable revolver models of the past
through their custom shop.

Revolvers have traditionally been associated with the United States exclusively; how¬
ever, this is not the case. It can be said that the most enduring designs originated in the
United States, but revolvers were developed, manufactured, and used in other parts of
the world as well. Crvena Zastava, Enfield, Herman Weihrauch (sold under the name
Arminus), Gamba, Llama, Manurhin, Nagant, Nambu, Miroku, Rohm, Rossi (now part of
Taurus), Taurus International, Uberti, and Webley are all names associated with revolv¬
ers made in various parts of the world. Revolvers remained the mainstay of American law
enforcement officers until the late 1980s, when the gradual transition to pistols began, pri¬
marily chambered in 9x19mm, the preferential automatic cartridge of the day. Revolvers
continued to serve in law enforcement around the world well past that time, even in places
more traditionally associated with using semiautomatic pistols.

Antique Replicas Antique replica revolvers, generally of Colt, Remington, or Smith
& Wesson pattern, are predominantly manufactured by Italian firms such as Beretta,
Cimarron Firearms, Euroarms (also known as Armi San Paolo), Fillipietta, and Uberti.
These revolvers can be black powder firing muzzle loaders or fire modern self-contained
cartridges. In either case, the firearm will be clearly marked to indicate what type of pro¬
pellant is appropriate. Colt has reintroduced the Single Action Army and New Frontier
models as center-fire cartridge revolvers, not black powder guns. These modern examples
very closely resemble the originals, including the use of materials such as brass, and are
chambered in period-correct calibers. These examples are not ordinarily attributed to
criminality, other than theft, but have been re-marked and refashioned to be sold as origi¬
nal pieces to unsuspecting buyers. Figure 1.3 in Chapter 1 depicts such an example.

Direction of Cylinder Rotation The direction of cylinder rotation of a particular revolver
is always of apparent investigative interest. Revolver designs have incorporated both clock¬
wise and counterclockwise rotations, and the rotation is design specific. Without having to
work the action of the revolver, there is a visual way to verify the rotation of the cylinder.
By looking at either side of the cylinder, there are a series of notches. The notches have a
teardrop shape to them; this indicates the direction of cylinder rotation. Teardrops located
on top of the notch indicate a cylinder that rotates clockwise. Conversely, teardrops located
on the bottom of the notch indicate a counterclockwise rotating cylinder (see Figure 4.3).

170

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.3 Taurus Model 856 in stainless steel. Note the teardrop-shaped recesses in the side
of the cylinder. The position of these recesses indicates that this cylinder will have a counter¬
clockwise rotation. (Image courtesy of Taurus International Manufacturing, Inc.)

Functionally, there does not appear to be an apparent advantage of one over the other;
however, that has not deterred some from suggesting that counterclockwise rotation allows
the cylinder to work itself loose and lose index with the barrel more quickly.

The cylinder “lock up” is by means of a frame-mounted latch that protrudes as the
trigger is pressed, locking the cylinder into place. This piece then recesses, allowing the
cylinder to rotate. The precise nomenclature for this particular part varies by manufac¬
turer; it can also be called the cylinder bolt or cylinder catch. It is plausible that, over time
by ordinary wear or as part of faulty design, positive cylinder lock up will be compromised,
potentially resulting in a cylinder with excessive rotational play or slack. An easy check for
this latch on an unloaded revolver is to attempt to rotate the cylinder in the appropriate
direction with the hammer down, then cock the hammer and attempt to rotate it again. If
cylinder rotation can be accomplished using hand pressure, a functional issue on that arm
has been diagnosed.

On single-action only or double/single action revolvers, when the hammer is cocked,
that is to say pulled to the rear, there will be a corresponding retraction of the trigger,
thereby pulling some of the “slack” from the trigger travel. The cylinder will also rotate
in its intended direction, presenting the next charge hole and the contained cartridge to
the hammer for discharge. A double-action trigger press will result in the simultaneous
rotation of the cylinder in concert with the travel of the hammer as the trigger travels to
the rear. A very competent revolver shooter is able to press the trigger to the edge of the
mechanical limits, causing cylinder rotation and the hammer to be suspended in a cocked
position that is held in place by the pressure being exerted on the trigger by the shooter.
If the trigger were released, the hammer would return to the down position. If the trig¬
ger were pressed again, the cylinder would rotate once more, leaving an orphan cartridge
because it had not been discharged. This in and of itself may explain an accidental dis¬
charge or training accident where this technique is being demonstrated.

Mechanical Failures If a revolver fails to fire a cartridge when the trigger is pressed, the
cause may be a worn or broken firing pin; however, it is more likely to have been caused
by insufficient pressure being applied by the firing pin when striking the primer or rim
of loaded ammunition. The trigger spring and main spring should be inspected to verify

Firearms

171

that there have been no “modifications” made to the springs such as shortened springs,
nonspecification springs, or flat main springs that have been bent or otherwise modified.
These efforts are generally made to lighten the trigger press of the firearm, but manifest
themselves as problems later on when the revolver fails to reliably operate.

Aside from mechanical failure, abuse, or wear, the only significant failure issue a
revolver may realize is, during ejection, a casing is trapped “under the star.” The star refers
to the ejector star at the back of the cylinder that acts against the rim to eject by depressing
the ejector rod. This type of error is operator induced and caused by the operator incom¬
pletely ejecting the loaded casings. In the event of a suspected accidental discharge, a possi¬
ble scenario that involves revolvers is the possibility of a cartridge catching on the grips. In
revolvers equipped with swing-out cylinders and an ejector, the cartridge in the 2 o’clock
or 3 o’clock position has a tendency to catch on larger or oversized grip panels (some called
magna grips), and this may go unnoticed by the operator. If the revolver were tilted down¬
ward, this could cause the cartridge to fall back into the charge hole, reloading a weapon
that the operator may assume was unloaded. If a casing is caught under the star, it would
not permit the cylinder to close, as the ejector would not be properly seated; however, if the
cartridge were to go unnoticed and return to the charge and the ejector star returned to
seat, then the gun would be once again loaded.

Accidental and Inadvertent Discharges Involving Revolvers Accidental discharges
due to mechanical failure in a modern revolver are highly unlikely. In scenarios where
a revolver is reported to have accidentally discharged, the circumstances by which the
revolver fired should be extensively documented. Frequently, the claim of the root cause
is attributed to a bump or strike of the firearm due to rough terrain, the weapon handler
being pushed or shoved, or other situations where the revolver would have been subjected
to an outside shock or force that would have prompted the engagement of the firing train to
cause discharge. The safety mechanisms in modern revolvers make such scenarios improb¬
able, but not impossible if the revolver has been tampered with or if there is an inherent
defect in manufacture. A competent subject-matter expert should be consulted and a thor¬
ough examination of the revolver be made. The basic reconstructive study would entail
loading the revolver with snap caps or other inert ammunition and attempts made to rep¬
licate the scenario as described by the handler when the accidental discharge took place.
Furthermore, a trajectory reconstruction at the scene of the event should be attempted to
ascertain the direction of the bore at the time of discharge. The handler should be thor¬
oughly debriefed concerning the circumstances of handling and what was happening with
the revolver at the time. The questions should include, at a minimum, the following:

Was the revolver holstered at the time of discharge?

Was this a loading or unloading operation?

What was the physical posture and position of the handler at the moment of the event
(seated, standing, leaning, etc.)?

Where did the event occur (inside a vehicle, on the shooting range, kitchen, hallway,
etc.)?

If the revolver was being handled at the time the discharge occurred, under what
reasoning and circumstances was the revolver being handled?

If the revolver was being handled, in what manner? A demonstration may be in order
with a prop firearm or another similar revolver.

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Quite often, the cause of the accidental discharge of a revolver can only be attributed
to handler error, as the only causation of the discharge can be attributed to trigger press.
A trigger press could only be made by a finger on the trigger or a foreign object enter¬
ing the trigger guard and compressing the trigger to cause the discharge to occur. It is
often the case that the handler should not have been handling the arm at the time the dis¬
charge took place, or handling the arm would have been inappropriate at the time the dis¬
charge occurred. The handler may have withdrawn the weapon from the holster and then
intended to reholster; however, the handler neglected to remove the finger from within the
trigger guard and the finger was compressed into the trigger when the revolver entered
the holster, causing the discharge. This scenario is especially made plausible if the handler
unexpectedly encounters others who would view an unholstered weapon and question the
circumstances, creating a sense of urgency to reholster before others take note. Scenarios
as described here have occurred in vehicles, guardhouses, and even restrooms involving
individuals under arms.*

Failure to Fire, Ammunition Issues In the case of a failure to fire, ammunition cannot
be eliminated from consideration, and should be explored as a possible cause. The ammu¬
nition should be inspected to verify that it appears serviceable, that is, that the ammunition
has not deteriorated due to the elements, chemical exposure, and improper storage. If this
does not seem to be an issue, the ammunition could be defective due to faulty primers, no
powder contained, or other defect in manufacture. An often-overlooked issue that is attrib¬
uted to the firearm to the exclusion of the cartridge is the hardness of the cartridge primer.
If the primer is too hard, then the firing pin may not cause the primer to detonate when
impacted. Such was the case during World War II with American-supplied revolvers to the
British Commonwealth under the Lend-Lease program. British-specification primers were
much harder than their American counterparts; thus American revolvers delivered a strike
that was too light to cause detonation. To correct the problem, a slight modification was
made by adjusting the mainspring to increase the force of impact on the primer.

While most revolvers are handguns, there are in fact revolver long guns as well. The
only significant difference is that the long-gun revolver has an attached shoulder stock
and a 16-inch barrel to comply with Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
(BATFE) regulations in the United States. The Rossi Circuit Judge is a modern example,
and is chambered to fire both .410 shot shells and .45 cartridges (see Figure 4.4). Certain
antique revolvers are found with these features, in addition to modern production and

Figure 4.4 The Rossi Circuit Judge is basically a Judge revolver that has been configured
into a rifle, having a shoulder stock and 16-inch barrel. (Image courtesy of Rossi Braztech
International.)

The term under arms is intended to define anyone carrying a firearm in the course of an official capacity
and while directly engaged in official duties.

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173

modern reproduction of antique-pattern arms. Revolvers are also popular as derringer-
type firearms, which are subclassed as small, easily concealable firearms.

Revolvers with Swing-Out Cylinder On modern revolvers, the swing-out cylinder is
the most commonly encountered variety. The swing-out cylinder emerged quite early in
modern design, having appeared in the 1880s. The cylinder is opened byway of a cylinder
release latch, also called a thumb piece, which is located on the frame. Some manufactur¬
ers use a latch that is pushed to the rear; others slide forward. Cylinder release latches have
customarily been located on the left side of the frame, but may be found in the area of the
hammer at the top of the frame by the rear sight.

When the cylinder release latch is depressed, it permits the cylinder to be opened and
the contents viewed. The cylinder is attached to the frame by the crane, which itself con¬
tains an axis pin that the cylinder spins upon. On a swing-out cylinder design, the axis pin
serves the dual purpose of acting as an ejector, which allows all cartridges to be ejected
by depressing the front of the pin, which is spring loaded and will return to rest when
released. The ejector “star” is on the back side of the cylinder and rests within recesses
there. These recesses permit the rim of the loaded casing to rest within them, and the ejec¬
tor acts upon the rim. Cartridges that are rimless or that have rebated rims may load in
a cylinder; however, they will not eject using the ejector, as there is no rim for the ejector
to act against. As a method for permitting the function and ejection of rimless cartridges
within a revolver, a moon clip or half-moon clip would be used. A revolver with a swing-
out cylinder may not be equipped with a cylinder release latch. A cylinder may be released
by the cylinder axis pin by depressing it. Such a design may be indicated by an axis pin that
is not shrouded or covered underneath the barrel. The examiner is cautioned that this, in
and of itself, is not an indication of this type of revolver exclusively. The absence of a cyl¬
inder release latch obviously eliminates the possibility of using one, and thus the cylinder
would be accessible by other means.

Break-Top or Solid-Frame Revolvers Alternatives to the swing-out cylinder are the
break-top-type and solid-frame (or fixed cylinder) revolvers. The break-top revolver has
a hinged frame that is opened by a release lever. Most often, the release lever is located
on the left side of the frame, where the cylinder release latch would otherwise be located;
however, the release mechanism can also be incorporated into the rear sight or otherwise
placed at the top of the frame. In such a case, upward and/or rearward pressure would
open the release. Opening the action with the lever pivots the front half of the revolver
down, revealing the cylinder. Caution must be exercised when doing this because the ejec¬
tor star is spring loaded and will forcibly eject the contents of the cylinder as the revolver is
opened. Opening the action will also release the cylinder and it will spin freely. The British
Webley and Enfield family of revolvers are commonly of this type (see Figure 4.5). Other
manufacturers have been IOF (India Ordnance Factory) as well as a number of American
manufacturers such as Harrington & Richardson (H&R).

Another variation of the solid-frame revolver uses either a loading gate, or the entire
cylinder is removed to load and unload. In these revolvers there is no cylinder release
lever; loading and unloading is accomplished by two different means, depending upon
the design of the particular revolver. In one variation of the solid-frame revolver, there is
a loading gate located on the right side of the frame behind the cylinder. The loading gate
is a hinged door that is opened to reveal the back of the cylinder (see Figure 4.6). An ejec¬
tion rod is spring loaded and encased within a shroud beneath the barrel. As the ejection

174

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.5 The name Enfield is not singular to the bolt-action rifle. Pictured is an Enfield
Number 2, Mark 1 revolver chambered in .38/200 British Service. This is a break-top revolver;
the lever to open the action is on the left side of the frame adjacent the hammer. Note the
spring-loaded ejector, which opens automatically when the action is opened. (Image from
author's collection.)

Figure 4.6 Solid frame revolver with spring-loaded ejector rod depressed. The loading gate is
open. (Image from author's collection.)

rod is depressed, the contained casing is ejected. Loaded cartridges can then be loaded as
empties are ejected. The visual cue is the detonated primer. With some models, it may be
necessary to partially cock the hammer to release the cylinder from the trigger, allowing
it to spin freely. The hammer may be cocked slightly above its resting position, or employ
a one-third cock, where the hammer travel is only about one-third its full travel, or half
cocked. When functioning properly, the trigger will not act to permit firing when the fire¬
arm is not fully cocked.

Another alternative to the solid-frame revolver differs in that the cylinder axis pin may
also serve as an ejector rod, where the cartridges or spent casings can be pushed out of the
cylinder charge holes. In this configuration, there is a small appendage to facilitate grip,
and the pin is spring-loaded forward so that the pin will rebound into the shroud and not
inhibit the operation of the revolver. In yet another variation of the solid-frame revolver,
the cylinder axis pin is threaded into the frame and is first unscrewed and then removed

Firearms

175

from the frame or is released by depressing a spring-loaded release button located in front
of the cylinder. Once removed, the entire cylinder is dropped out of the frame, and the
pin can be used as an ejector rod to push casings or cartridges out of the charge holes. The
cylinder is then simply returned to the frame and the pin reinserted into the frame and
through the cylinder and screwed back in to secure it in place.

Revolver Safety Devices The approaches to a safety apparatus on a revolver have dif¬
fered from those installed on semiautomatic handguns, that is, not having a manually
engaged safety device. However, other forms of safety systems have been devised for
revolvers. Frederick Felton, an employee of Colt, patented a safety device in 1895 for revolv¬
ers known as the Felton Device. The safety device prevents the revolver from discharging
when the cylinder is not completely closed and locked in with the frame. The device acts as
an intermediary between the trigger and the cylinder release latch, or thumb piece, deny¬
ing trigger motion unless the latch is in its fully closed position (Felton 1895). As cylinder
release latches are spring loaded, the operation is seamless and transparent to the user.
The majority of, but not all, revolvers have incorporated the Felton Device or some simi¬
lar mechanism to the design. Break-top-type revolvers, and more cheaply made examples
of revolvers, should not be expected to have such a device installed. For test purposes,
the Felton Device can be defeated by engaging and maintaining pressure on the cylinder
release latch and then pressing the trigger. As with all mechanical safeties, their function
cannot be relied upon absolutely. Barring alteration of the firearm, mechanical safety sys¬
tems seldom fail. Manufacturer defect by design or material cannot be ruled out, but these
are not common either.

Hammer Cock Positions Several different approaches to revolver hammer-position
safety and a hammer at rest were devised. A cocked hammer presumably presents the pos¬
sibility of an accidental discharge if the revolver were dropped or subjected to an outside
force that may force the hammer to fall. Regardless of how positive the hammer lockup
is, the perception is generally that a cocked weapon is at risk of inadvertent, accidental
discharge. Other measures were devised to address the potential for the interaction of the
hammer with the loaded cartridge under the hammer when the hammer was in the rest,
or down, position.

Single-action revolvers, especially those loaded by a loading gate or removable cylin¬
der, often have a hammer cock position sometimes referred to as the safety notch, which
is designed to keep the hammer off the firing pin and the firing pin from resting on any
loaded cartridges. The actual hammer position may not literally be a quarter pull relative
to a fully cocked position; it may be just a few millimeters of travel to keep the hammer
off the firing pin; or it may be half cocked. As with all safeties, this feature cannot be con¬
sidered as a guarantee to prevent discharge due to rough handling or a trigger press. The
half-cock position, also known as the loading position, is to be treated with equal delicacy.
Some single-action revolvers go so far as to have a disclaimer inscribed on them telling the
handler not to have a cartridge chambered under the hammer, essentially making a six-
shooter a five-shooter.

Rebounding-Hammer Safety A rebounding-hammer safety is not a dedicated safety
device per se, although it does serve two basic purposes that, for all practical purposes, can
be treated as acting in the interest of safety. The first is to prevent the firing pin from resting
directly against the cartridge primer, which potentially could cause accidental discharge if

176

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

the firing pin were somehow to strike the primer with sufficient pressure to cause detona¬
tion. The second purpose is to prevent the firing pin from sticking in place from lack of
maintenance, wear, or general deterioration of the firearm that would prevent opening the
cylinder should the firing pin freeze in the striking, or extended, position. The rebound-
ing-hammer safety is not exclusive to revolvers, it can be found on other types of firearms
as well. Functionally, the rebounding hammer comes to rest in a position that prevents it
from directly contacting the firing pin after the firearm has been fired.

Transfer-Bar Safety The transfer-bar style of safety is literally a lever set within the frame
between the hammer and the firing pin. The transfer bar is mechanically linked to the trig¬
ger so that as the trigger is pressed, the transfer bar moves into a blocking position between
the hammer and firing pin. When the trigger is fully depressed and the trigger “breaks”
(meaning the hammer disengages from the trigger and drops to fire the loaded cartridge),
the transfer bar, which is fully extended upward, is impacted by the falling hammer and
transfers the impact to the firing pin. Had it not been for the intervention of the transfer
bar, no detonation would have occurred, since there is insufficient hammer travel for the
hammer to directly impact the firing pin; the transfer bar serves as the medium between
the two parts to literally transfer the force. As the movement of the transfer bar into the
firing position is entirely dependent on the movement of the trigger, the safety will prevent
an accidental discharge from taking place if the hammer were somehow subjected to some
outside force that caused it to fall. The transfer bar will also prevent accidental discharges
if the hammer were struck by force or dropped when it is “at rest” or in the uncocked posi¬
tion. An investigative inspection of any revolver should include checking the hammer for
“push off,” where considerable force is applied to the cocked hammer that attempts to force
the hammer to fall when the trigger is not pressed. The potential for push off can be studied
by applying force with the hands, blows with a hammer, and even dropping the revolver
from height.

Hammer-Block Safety There are several subtle variations of the hammer-block safety, but
they all practically serve the same function. The hammer block is best described as providing
the same level of safety as the transfer bar, yet addressing the question by taking the com¬
pletely opposite approach. The hammer-block safety, like the transfer bar, is mechanically
linked to the trigger. It is designed to prevent the hammer from passing through the frame
unless the trigger is fully depressed. The hammer block moves down and out of the way of the
hammer as the trigger is depressed, again opposite the transfer-bar system but essentially per¬
forming the same function. If pressure is relieved from the trigger, the hammer block returns
to its locked (up) position, thereby denying passage of the firing pin through the frame.

The hammer block safety is mostly seen on revolvers whose firing pins are part of the
hammer itself, such as is the case with Smith & Wesson revolvers, faithful copies of these
revolvers, and most modern double-action Colt revolvers. Colt preferred to call the ham¬
mer-block safety the “Positive Safety Lock.” This was first introduced on the Police Positive
model, hence the name “Positive.” The experienced revolver shooter is capable of pressing
the trigger to “index” the cylinder. This involves pressing the trigger so that the cylinder
rotates and the hammer cocks, but it is suspended by the threshold pressure of the shooter’s
finger on the trigger that is exerting sufficient force to cause this action to take place, yet
insufficient pressure and trigger travel to cause discharge to take place. In such a condition,
the shooter could release the trigger, which would allow the hammer to fall as the trigger is
released but the hammer block would prevent the discharge from taking place.

Firearms

177

Firing-Pin Safety The firing-pin safety is not a singular-acting safety device per se;
rather, it acts as an additional measure of protection against an accidental or unintended
discharge. One approach to the firing-pin safety is the inertia firing pin. The firing pin is
spring loaded so that it resists movement toward the chamber, and this resistance must be
overcome by force of impact from the hammer, typically through a transfer bar. Another
approach is to block the firing pin by some type of intermediary, such as the case of the
transfer bar or hammer block.

Cylinder Indexing Over time due to use and wear, and especially if more powerful car¬
tridges are fired, revolvers can begin to lose their indexing. The index is the cylinder align¬
ment with the barrel. If significant movement is noted in the cylinder that allows it to move
freely, or if there is a report of a gun “shaving lead,” the cylinder is not properly indexing.
Shaving lead is caused by the misalignment between the forcing cone of the barrel and the
cylinder. Slight misalignment will cause small fragments to shave from the projectile when
fired; more significant loss of index can be catastrophic to the shooter and the firearm. A
certain amount of slight wiggle is acceptable. The area where the barrel meets the cylinder
within the frame is called the forcing cone, which is conically shaped to account for very
slight variations in the cylinder index relative the barrel even when normal tolerances exist.

Single- and Double-Action Revolvers Revolvers can be capable of single action only,
double action only, or both single and double action. Double-action-only revolvers are
not capable of firing in a single-action condition, and in fact double-action revolvers
can typically be discriminated by not having a visible hammer or not having a hammer
spur that would permit the hammer to be cocked. Double-action-only revolvers are
generally made on smaller frames designed for concealed or discreet carry. The double
action, coupled with any of the previously described revolver safety systems, is designed
to enhance the safety factor of such revolvers. Revolvers that are capable of single and
double action will have at least a portion of the hammer exposed that allows the shooter
to manually cock it if desired. Revolvers with exposed hammers capable of single action
operation will have a spur for cocking, whereas revolvers with concealed or shrouded ham¬
mers will have an exposed appendage, such as the Taurus Model 851 in Figure 4.7. The
revolvers in Figures 1.3 and 1.4 have fully exposed hammers to permit single action func¬
tion. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 depict a revolver in both firing conditions. In contrast, the Enfield
revolver in Figure 4.5 has an exposed hammer but lacks the spur to manually cock it, indi¬
cating that this revolver is double action only.

Most contemporary revolvers are based on established designs that originated from Colt,
Smith & Wesson, or Ruger. The most recent innovations in revolvers have focused on using
frames constructed of polymers, compressed powdered metals, and even exotic materials
such as scandium and titanium. Taurus International markets polymer-framed revolvers in
its Public Defender models. Smith & Wesson’s Bodyguard is constructed of a combination
of a steel-reinforced polymer lower frame and an aluminum-alloy upper frame. The Ruger
LCR is an interesting study in multiple materials, using aerospace-grade aluminum for the
.38 Special frames, a stainless steel cylinder, and polymer firing control housing. The .357
version uses stainless steel to construct the frame (Sturm, Ruger, and Co. 2011).

Since their inception, revolvers were chambered for fully rimmed cartridges, as the
casing rim supports the cartridge in the cylinder. The classic revolver cartridges include
such as the .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .44 Special, .45 Long Colt, and so forth. Smith
& Wesson’s Governor Model revolver chambers 214" .410 shot shells, .45 ACP, and .45

178

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.7 Taurus Model 851 Ultra Lite is capable of single- or double-action operation.
The hammer is shrouded by the frame, but there is a small textured appendage that permits
thumb cocking for single-action firing if desired. (Image courtesy of Taurus International
Manufacturing, Inc.)

Colt cartridges without any modifications. Preceding the introduction of the Governor,
Taurus International released a revolver called the Judge, capable of chambering both
.45 class cartridges and .410 shot shells. These revolvers are something of a throwback to
handguns that were designed to fire shot shells, although these were breech-loaded pistols
and not revolvers. An unusual revolver produced by Smith & Wesson, the Model 547,
was chambered for the 9x19mm Luger cartridge. The Model 547 was a K-frame (medium
size) revolver with a six-round capacity. Unlike the N-frame Model 1917, the Model 547
did not use moon clips or other attachments to load the cartridges, but featured an intri¬
cately redesigned ejector star to accommodate the rimless 9x19mm cartridge. Revolvers
are chambered up to .50" cartridges, often called the “big bore” revolvers. The big-bore
race was tempered only by legal restrictions that prohibit firearms from using cartridges
greater than one-half-inch bore diameter, or .50 caliber. The .460 and .500 Smith &
Wesson Magnum cartridges, .480 Ruger, and the .475 Linebaugh are likely the most well-
known examples of the big-bore revolvers outside of the wildcat loads (see Chapter 2 for
a discussion of wildcat loads).

Semiautomatic Pistols

The BATFE defines a semiautomatic pistol as “any repeating pistol which utilizes a por¬
tion of the energy of a firing cartridge to extract the fired cartridge case and chamber
the next round, and which requires a separate pull of the trigger to fire each cartridge”
(ATF 2002). Auto-loading, semiautomatic, or breech-loaded handguns are termed pistols.
Auto-loading or semiautomatic pistols are exactly like semiautomatic long guns, firing one
round with each press of the trigger until the ammunition supply is exhausted. An auto¬
loading pistol is supplied ammunition from a magazine that is either removable or is fixed
within the frame or receiver.

German designer Hugo Borchardt devised the first pistol in 1893. Borchardt drew
heavily from the work of Hiram Maxim, who had developed the automatic rifle in 1883.
Maxim’s design used the recoil force generated by the discharge of a cartridge to perpetu¬
ate the firing cycle of the firearm. Sir Isaac Newton’s Third Law of Motion, as described in

Firearms

179

the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, states that for every action, there is an
opposite and equal reaction. The energy released when the cartridge was detonated could
be captured and used to expel the spent casing, chamber a live cartridge, and reset the fir¬
ing train for a subsequent shot. This idea of recycling the energy made available through
discharge paved the way to the first successful, practical machine gun, adopted by many
nations under different names but universally known as “The Maxim.” Capitalizing on
these prior arts, Georg Luger went on to develop his own interpretation of the automatic
pistol, itself a timeless design recognized not only by its classic lines, but its ominous repu¬
tation. Paul Mauser received a U.S. patent for an automatic pistol on June 15, 1897, having
already received patents for the design in Germany in 1895 and other nations between 1895
and 1897. Titled “Recoil Operated Firearm,” Mauser stated that:

the main object of the invention is to provide an improved magazine repeating firearm with
a moveable barrel in which recoil caused by the shot is used to unlock and open the breech
to eject the empty cartridge-case and to cock the firing mechanism as well as to compress a
number of springs arranged in such a manner as to effect the loading of a fresh cartridge,
the relocking of the breech and the locking of the bolt, and the advancing movement of the
barrel. (Mauser 1897)

John Browning entered the automatic pistol field in 1898 when he presented a design
to the Belgian firm Fabrique Nationale (FN); the pistol entered production as the Model
1899. The Model 1900, which was slightly improved, entered production the following
year. The FN Model 1900 was the first regular-production semiautomatic pistol to use a
reciprocating slide, which is now commonplace in pistols. Browning continued to capital¬
ize with a succession of pistols based on the 1900. Browning’s approach of using a recip¬
rocating slide was in contrast to the toggle action favored by Borchardt and Luger and
the movable barrel that Mauser had pursued. The action of the toggle resembles that of
the second knuckle of the finger: Pulling the knuckle withdraws the end of the finger and
mimics the toggle action.

None of the German designers—Borchardt, Mauser, or Luger—had yet incorporated
the concept of the reciprocating slide, although the art of pistols was obviously well under¬
way in Germany by that time. German manufacturers largely passed by revolvers, with
some notable exceptions such as the Reich’s Revolvers, devised in the 1870s and still in
regular service as late as World War I, with anecdotal evidence of them appearing in World
War II. Mauser entered the revolver field with the 1878 pattern but did not pursue it in favor
of developing pistols. Browning designs were favored on both sides of the Atlantic; all pis¬
tols manufactured by Colt were of Browning’s design, and he enjoyed a long-standing rela¬
tionship with Fabrique Nationale as well. In retrospect, Colt seemed to prefer Browning’s
blowback designs, while Fabrique Nationale preferred the breech-locked designs.

John Browning will be best remembered for designing the pistol that would become
the Colt Model 1911, inspired by his Model 1900, which was chambered in .38 Rimless
Smokeless. The 1911 is considered by many to be the classic pistol of the ages, and is likely
the most widely copied pistol of all time. The 1911 was followed by the Browning Hi Power—
also called the P35, the HP, and Model 1935—chambered in 9x19mm and first manufac¬
tured by Fabrique Nationale (see Figure 4.8). The Hi Power is one of the most popular
pistol designs on the planet and, like the 1911, has been widely copied, but certainly not to
the extent of the 1911. While firing the smaller 9x19mm cartridge instead of the .45 ACP,

180

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.8 Browning Hi Power 9x19mm pistol in military matte black enamel finish. (Image
from UK Ministry of Defence; photographer Brian Douglas.)

the Hi Power featured a double-stack magazine,* providing a higher ammunition capacity
than the single-stack magazine of the 1911. The basic Hi Power design has been subjected
to subtle changes, and there are numerous variations. Browning died before finishing the
Hi Power, and the question lingers over whether he would have pursued the locking-bar
design that ultimately was used in the Hi Power or remained with the swinging-link design
of the Model 1911.

As a historical footnote, the Hi Power was used by Axis and Allied forces during
World War II, and was produced in occupied Belgium by FN for German consumption
and in Canada by the John Inglis firm. It was also distributed to Chinese and British
Commonwealth forces, especially commando units. The British formally took the Hi
Power into official military service in 1954, and it has remained in use throughout the
world. The Hi Power continues to be available commercially. Most modern pistol designs
can attribute at least some design feature or inspiration from the ideas and innovations of
John Browning.

Pistol Safety Systems There are a number of approaches used for safety systems in pis¬
tols. The prevalent systems in use, and subtly copied, are outlined in this text, rather than
outlining every approach ever used. Historically, the safety has been a manually operated
function that is manipulated by a lever, switch, or button (see Figure 4.9). Use of the push¬
button or cross-beam safety on handguns is unusual but not unheard of. The safety button
is located on the trigger guard and follows the practice where such a safety is installed on a
long gun. The cross-bar safety locks the trigger out from the rest of the firing train.

Safety levers can be mounted on the frame or slide. Slide-mounted safety levers are
ordinarily on the left side; however, ambidextrous levers (a lever on both sides) are available.
In consideration of left-handed shooters, many contemporary designs permit the operator
to relocate the safety to either side, typically without the assistance of an armorer or spe¬
cialized tools. Safety levers frequently, but not always, incorporate a decocking feature.
On such an equipped firearm, when the safety is depressed, the hammer safely leaves the
single-action or cocked position and returns to the rest position. Obviously, if the firearm is

A double-stack magazine design has cartridges stack in two staggered rows within the magazine body,
whereas the single-stack design permits a single column of cartridges stacked one on top of the other.

Firearms

181

Figure 4.9 A U.S. Military M9 (Beretta 92) pistol. The red dot at the back of the slide indicates
that the safety lever is on the "off" position; the weapon is capable of firing. The old mnemonic
"red you're dead" always applies. (U.S. Army image.)

capable of both single and double action, the firearm would be made ready to fire when the
safety was disengaged, even though the hammer is down or in a double-action condition.

SIG Sauer installs a decocking lever almost universally on its product line. The lever
is located just forward of the left grip panel, where a portion of the panel is cut out so that
the lever can sit flush with the grip. The lever is spring loaded so that it can return upward
once released. SIG did not generally use a slide-mounted safety catch, except in the case
of its Mosquito pistol, chambered in .22. Walther’s P99AS features a decocker that is flush
mounted to the top of the slide and provides a tactile cocking-condition indicator.

The firing-pin-block-type safety prevents the firing pin from traveling forward without
a complete trigger press. Most models with a safety lever on the slide use some form of a
firing-pin-block safety. For obvious technical reasons, decocking levers are not installed
on striker-fired pistols because there is no hammer to decock, as the striker is generally
cocked by the action of the slide or by the press of the trigger.

Magazine Safety Another safety feature of pistols, especially prevalent in Smith &
Wesson models but in use by others, is the magazine cutoff safety. The Browning Hi Power
was the first pistol to incorporate the magazine cutoff safety. The magazine safety will not
allow the firearm to discharge unless a magazine is inserted and seated in the magazine
well (see Figure 4.10). Mechanically, this system uses a trip or a lever that moves when
acted upon by the magazine body, thus permitting normal operation. With the magazine
removed, the trip is relaxed and disables the firing train. An engaged magazine safety
(magazine removed) disables the trigger, which can be pressed without a discharge occur¬
ring. In such a design, the trigger has no resistance at all when pressed and simply returns
to its resting point when not being manipulated. Another approach causes the trigger to
lock out, and the trigger is prevented from any travel when the safety system is engaged.

Firing-Pin Safety Like revolvers, firing-pin safety systems are employed in automatic
pistols as an additional measure of safety that complements the other safety systems built
into the design. There are several approaches to firing-pin safety. A firing pin maybe physi¬
cally blocked by a bar or other barrier until the trigger is pressed or the safety is relaxed by
whatever means used on that design. A novel approach to firing-pin safety was to push the
firing pin out of alignment with the firing-pin channel when the safety lever was engaged,

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.10 Close-up of an L.W. Seekamp pistol, showing the draw bar, which is connected to
the trigger and the hammer strut. Just behind the trigger is the magazine safety lever, which
disables the firing train when no magazine is inserted. (Image from author's collection.)

as in the case of the Mauser Hsc. Spring-loaded firing pins can resemble revolver-style
inertia firing pins, having spring tension that resists movement until overcome by the
force of hammer impact. Striker-fired double-action-only pistols generally put the firing
pin under spring pressure to cock when the trigger is pressed; otherwise, the firing pin
basically floats within the firing-pin channel. The Swartz safety system installed on the
Colt 1911 was novel: The firing-pin safety was coupled to the grip safety panel, and had no
connection whatsoever to the manual safety. The grip safety panel was connected to the
firing-pin safety by means of an actuator that pushed upward when pressed. “This upward
movement will slide the actuator upward which in turn will move the firing pin safety lock
out of engagement with the firing pin, the pin now being free to be moved to the firing
position” (Swartz 1937).

A fixed firing pin is a firing pin that is not a separate component from the bolt or
action, but is permanently affixed to the breech face. A fixed firing pin can only be used
in a firearm that fires from an open bolt; it is not feasible to have a fixed firing pin firing
from a closed bolt. In the United States, open-bolt designs were discontinued per an ATF
(Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms) ruling in 1982, continuing only in machine
guns, so the concept of fixed firing pins on semiautomatic weapons passed into extinction.

Loaded-Chamber Indicator The loaded-chamber indicator is not a new idea, but it has
been recently resurrected and has become a common feature, as certain venues will only
permit sales of firearms that are so equipped. The indicator is not a safety device in the
sense that it is a mechanical intervention to prevent the firearm from discharging. The
loaded-chamber indicator is literally an appendage on the firearm that presents itself when
a cartridge is loaded in the chamber or when the action is cocked. This is particularly true
with striker-fired actions, where the slide has been pulled to the rear and the action is
cocked, whether there is a cartridge loaded in the chamber or not.

Perhaps the earliest example of a loaded-chamber indicator was present on the Luger pis¬
tol. The Luger has a small tab on top of the slide, forward the toggle, that permitted both visual
and tactile indication that the gun was loaded (see Figure 4.11). The small tab had the word
GELADEN (German, literally meaning “loaded”) stamped on the side. Recall that the Luger

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183

Figure 4.11 The Ruger SR9C features a very conspicuous tactile and visual loaded cham¬
ber indicator that is plainly marked. (Image from author’s collection.)

was designed in the late 1800s. The Luger’s replacement, the Walther-designed R38, featured
a loaded chamber indicator in the form of a small pin that protruded out the back of the slide
above the hammer, giving the handler a tactile indication that the gun was loaded, a feature
that Walther had already incorporated into its PP and PPK series pistols, with the exception
of pistols chambered in .22, which were not so equipped. The Sauer 38h, another pre-World
War II German design, featured a loaded-chamber indicator as well as a decocker, although
the decocker was omitted in later war production as a matter of manufacturing expediency.

Glock redesigned the extractor on their pistols to include a small raised tab that would
present itself outward when a round was chambered. The previous extractor design did
not feature a raised tab; however, it did physically protrude from the slide when a cartridge
was chambered, and the tab only makes it more pronounced. Taurus International has
included a loaded-chamber indicator on all pistols they manufacture, mimicking Glock by
incorporating it into the extractor. Ruger has incorporated a loaded-chamber indicator in
their SR series handguns. It takes the form of a small tab that elevates from the slide behind
the ejection port. The tab has “LOADED WHEN UP” inscribed on it, and is painted bright
red on either side. Jimenez Arms, the successor of Bryco Arms, installs a loaded-chamber
indicator in the form of a red plastic knob that pushes out to the rear from the slide when
the firearm is loaded and the striker is cocked. Bryco Arms had incorporated this feature
on its pistols before the company went into bankruptcy in 2003.

Grip Safety A grip safety consists of a movable pressure plate that is present on the front
or back strap of the pistol grip. When the hand is removed from the grip, the grip-safety
system engages as the plate extends outward. When a positive grasp by the operator is
made onto the grip-safety panel, the grip-safety system disables.

Grip safeties often, but not always, work in concert with other forms of mechanical
safety devices. The Colt Model 1903 Vest Pocket pistol featured a grip safety on the grip’s
back strap and also incorporated a manually engaged safety catch. The safety of the design
was further enhanced by the addition of a magazine safety. The 1903 is directly related to
the Model 1908; the only difference between them is the caliber, with the 1903 chambered
in .32 ACP and the 1908 chambered in .380 ACP. Although the 1903 and 1908 were said to
be of hammerless design, they truly were not, as both designs had internal hammers. The
Colt Model 1911 and 1911A1 featured a grip safety, also present on the back strap. The 1911
and 1911A1 also had a manual safety lever that worked independently of the grip safety.

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.12 Close-up of the grip of the UZI submachine gun. The grip safety is located behind
the magazine well and is spring loaded. The grip panels have been removed to show these
details. (Image from author's collection.)

Perhaps the most radical application of a grip safety was the H&K P7 pistol. The P7 is
a delayed blowback-type handgun that featured a prominent lever on the front strap of the
grip. When the pistol was grasped, pressure was applied to the lever, which then cocked
the firing pin. Of course firing could not occur until the trigger was pressed, which was
quite an interesting technical approach to not use the trigger to apply the force to cock an
internal firing pin. This gave the P7 a high degree of safety, and it did not feature additional
safety devices, as it would have been redundant to do so. Numerous variations of the P7
were manufactured, including a dedicated training version that was specifically designed
to fire plastic projectiles and a variation for special operations that featured a threaded
barrel from which to attach a suppressor. It was not only the unique safety system that
made the P7 an interesting, albeit complex, design. In the classic design of a blowback, the
P7 featured a fixed barrel, which could only have contributed to its reputation for accu¬
racy. The barrel had a polygonal profile, instead of traditional rifling, which was practically
unheard of when the P7 came to market in 1979. In addition, the pistol had a fluted cham¬
ber, unknown for any handgun made anywhere, but a standard feature of H&K rifles and
submachine guns of the day.

The Dutch Madson M/46 submachine gun incorporated a grip safety located at the
backside of the magazine well. Apparently, the magazine well was intended to serve dou¬
ble duty as a fore grip, as the M/46 was incapable of firing unless the safety lever was
depressed. The UZI, Mini UZI, and Micro UZI also featured a grip safety that was placed
on the back strap of the grip, which was an addition to the manually engaged safety on the
fire-selector switch (see Figure 4.12). Other firearms inspired by the UZI share the charac¬
teristic grip safety. For operators that found grip safeties to be an impediment, the safety
plate was often wired or taped shut to provide constant pressure on it, thereby effectively
overriding it.

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185

Trigger Safety A trigger safety operates in much the same way as the grip safety. A small
pressure plate is installed on the trigger that prevents movement of the trigger unless the
pressure plate is first depressed, which engages the trigger and permits trigger travel. The
trigger safety is one of three safety features on all Glock pistols, and has since appeared on
other designs as well, including the Springfield XD pistols and some Taurus pistol models.
A trigger safety is readily apparent by looking at the trigger and seeing a small appendage
on the leading edge of the trigger.

Safe-Action and Similar Double-Action Systems The introduction of the Glock 17 radi¬
cally changed the paradigm of firearm design in a number of ways. The Glock-patented
“Safe Action” is a three-way safety system whose functions are completely passive; there are
no manually operated safeties. The three safeties are sequentially disengaged as the trigger
is fully pressed. The three parts of the Safe Action are the trigger safety, firing-pin safety,
and drop safety. The trigger safety consists of a small tab on the face of the trigger. If this tab
is not first depressed, the trigger will not operate. The firing-pin safety is a physical barrier
in the form of a spring-loaded plunger that isolates the firing pin from the breech face. The
drop safety is accomplished by the design of the firing-train components, preventing the
trigger bar from acting with force against the firing pin in the event the firearm is dropped.

Initially, this approach was somewhat controversial among the purveyors of firearms,
and the Glock was often dismissed for failing to have any form of manual safety, which
often led to erroneous claims that the pistol simply had no safety device installed whatso¬
ever. Another erroneous claim was that, due to the use of polymer, the Glock would pass
undetected through metal detectors, making it easy for someone to smuggle one onboard
an aircraft or another controlled area. This claim ignored the basic fact that much of the
firearm, specifically the slide and barrel, was constructed of steel. Moreover, many of the
internal components are constructed of metal, and there is a metal endoskeleton in the
frame underneath the polymer. The controversy has abated, and the industry has come to
emulate the Glock. Double-action-only, striker-fired, polymer-framed pistols are now the
norm as opposed to the exception.

In 1994, Smith & Wesson responded to the appearance of the Glock with the Sigma
Series, which resulted in a lawsuit brought by Glock, who claimed that Smith & Wesson
infringed on intellectual property rights. Ultimately, the case was settled out of court with
undisclosed terms in 1997. Taurus International Manufacturing, Springfield Armory,
Smith & Wesson, Ruger, Kel-Tec, H&K, SIG Arms, Tanfoglio (sold under the name
European American Armory in the United States), and a host of others now market pis¬
tols similarly configured to the Glock and are often mistaken as Glocks when viewed. The
case could also be made that the impact that the Glock has had on the firearms industry
has manifested itself in the form of numerous small manufacturers that have entered
the marketplace. The market acceptance of polymer-framed pistols has allowed these
smaller manufacturers to enter the market with polymer-framed pistols with steel slides
and barrels that operate as double-action-only guns, operated either by blowback or by
a Browning-type recoil action. There can be no dispute that the main reason that has
stimulated this occurrence is the cost effectiveness of a polymer frame compared to one
fabricated of metal. The appearance of these styles of firearms from these smaller manu¬
facturers has prompted the larger manufacturers to respond to this segment of the mar¬
ket. The appearance of names such as Diamondback Firearms, Kahr Arms, Kel-Tec, and
Cobra Firearms has certainly prompted companies such as Ruger, Sig Sauer, and Smith

186

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

& Wesson to respond with their own small-framed, polymer-based firearms. Kahr Arms
announced in April 2011 that it had filed suit against Diamondback Firearms over “patent
infringement” (Kahr Arms 2011).

Other Pistol Controls

Magazine Release Another feature found on pistols that does not appear on revolvers
is a magazine release. American tradition has called for the magazine-release button to
appear on the left side of the frame close to the where the grip meets the trigger guard.
Newer pistol designs may permit relocating the magazine release to either side of the frame
as a concession to left-handed shooters, similar to the practice for locating the safety or
safety/decocker on some models. European practice traditionally has been to place the
magazine release on the heel of the grip, typically as a release latch that interacted with the
magazine floor plate. When the latch was pulled to the rear, the magazine was released.
Variations of these styles do exist. Beretta Model 92 handguns manufactured in the 1970s
placed the magazine release button within the left grip panel, but near the heel of the
grip. A more contemporary approach has been to re-form part of the trigger guard into a
magazine-release paddle that is ambidextrous, eliminating the need to relocate the maga¬
zine release to suit the right- or left-handed shooter. The H&K USP series pistols—as well
as the Walther PK380, PPS, PPQ, P22, and P99—all feature magazine releases built into
the trigger guard. In Figure 4.8, the magazine release is a small, knurled button located
behind the trigger, a customary place for this control to be located.

Slide-Lock Lever Most, but not all, pistol designs feature a form of slide-lock lever. As the
name implies, the purpose of the lever is to lock the slide to the rear so that the chamber is
exposed. An exposed chamber allows visual and tactile inspection to ensure that no cartridge
is loaded. Locking the slide to the rear may also be a requisite to disassembling the firearm.

During shooting operations, when the ammunition supply is exhausted, the pistol is
designed to lock the slide to the rear, alerting the shooter that the gun is now empty. This
is not a function of the slide lock, but rather a function of a trip or catch that is tripped by
the magazine follower. Most pistol designs allow the slide to be pulled slightly rearward
from this locked position to release the trip and allow the slide to travel forward and close,
regardless of whether a magazine is inserted or not. Certain pistol designs, such as the
Mauser HSc, do not feature a slide lock; the action is locked open entirely on the basis of
the magazine follower catch, and the action cannot be closed until a magazine is inserted.

It is a common but ill-advised practice to use the slide-lock lever as the means to release
the slide: When the lever is pressed, the slide slams forward. Such a practice ultimately
leads to the slide-lock lever fracturing, as the small piece of metal cannot stand up against
the mass of the slide wearing it down. A better practice is to simply pull the slide back and
release the slide lock, then release the slide and allow it to travel forward. Inexperienced
shooters will often “ride the slide,” that is, they will attempt to control the forward travel
of the slide by maintaining hand pressure on it, normally out of fear that they will break
the gun if the slide is allowed to travel forward freely. Riding the slide is a major cause of
malfunction in pistols, as the action is inhibited and may not operate properly. Using the
slide-lock lever to close the action of an unknown pistol may present another potential
hazard. If the pistol has been modified to have a fixed firing pin, simply releasing the slide
when a loaded magazine is inserted would cause the firearm to discharge, likely continu¬
ously, until the ammunition supply was exhausted.

Firearms

187

Single-Shot Handguns

Single-shot, breech-loaded handguns such as the Remington XP-100 and the Thompson
Contender family of pistols are rarely encountered in a criminal context, unless they are
recovered stolen firearms. The Remington XP-100 is a bolt-action arm, using a turndown-
type bolt. The Thompson Contenders are single action, and the action is opened by manip¬
ulating the trigger guard, which doubles as the release to open the breech. Such pistols
may have exposed barrels, or the barrels may be shrouded by a horizontal hand guard,
somewhat resembling a small rifle. By virtue of being capable of being fired when held
with one hand, and having a chamber that is integral to the bore, single-shot handguns are
classified as pistols.

Derringers The term derringer has generically been used to define especially small hand¬
guns and may take the form of a revolver or pistol. The earliest examples predate the use of
self-contained cartridges, instead relying on percussion design. The term originated from a
man named Henry Deringer, a manufacturer of firearms in the nineteenth century. (Note
the difference in spelling: The modern term is spelled with rr, while the name is spelled
with a single r.)

In 1806 Henry Deringer established a firearms factory in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and
began manufacturing flintlock pistols, muskets, and somewhat later, percussion rifles for the
U.S. Army. Though initially recognized as a supplier of long arms, Deringer gained renown
with the production of percussion dueling pistols, which first appeared in 1825 and were
primarily sought by military officers and political officials. The manufacture of a smaller ver¬
sion of the dueling pistol in the late 1840s and the pocket pistol in the early 1850s solidified
Deringer’s position as a manufacturer of quality firearms. (FBI 2001)

Pistol derringers can have single or multiple barrels. Derringers can be concealed in
a wallet, mounted on a belt buckle, or carried in the pocket or a garter belt. Derringers
have always proven to be the ultimate option in concealability. True to the design intent
and as a matter of safety, most derringers are single-action-only firearms. Derringers
can be of any caliber, from small to large, and their effectiveness is limited to very close
quarters. Mechanically, nothing differentiates a derringer from a larger handgun that
operates the same way, save the more diminutive dimensions. An interesting pistol that
could be called a derringer was the Snake Charmer. Manufactured by Cobray, this dou¬
ble-barrel side-by-side pistol was capable of chambering either .410 shot shells or .45
class cartridges. The pistol was primarily designed for hikers or other outdoor enthu¬
siasts who might find it necessary to dispatch a snake with a small, handy firearm. The
barrel had a minimal amount of rifling—just enough to meet legal requirements so that
the pistol could not be defined as having a smooth bore. A similar derringer is manufac¬
tured by Leinad, a single-shot .45/.410. Cobra Enterprises manufactures an over/under
derringer reminiscent of the pattern manufactured by Davis Industries. Harrington &
Richardson manufactures a different model called the Snake Charmer, a .410 breech-
loaded shotgun.

A recent entrant into the derringer market is the DoubleTap. Designed and manufac¬
tured by Heizer Defense, it is constructed of either aluminum or titanium. The pistol has
an over/under barrel configuration and will be produced in 9x19mm and .45 ACP. Publicly
announced in October 2011, the DoubleTap is now in regular production (Heizer Defense
2011 ).

188

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

General Safety Issues
Hang Fires

A hang fire occurs when the trigger is pressed and discharge is intended, but the cartridge
does not detonate right away. There are a few potential causes, but all are primer related.
The primer could be defective or weathered, which would inhibit the primer from instanta¬
neously detonating when subjected to force of impact. It is of critical importance to main¬
tain muzzle discipline should a hang fire occur, as the powder charge in the casing could
potentially detonate at any moment and without warning. There is no set time of delay in
a hang fire other than it is generally agreed upon that a minimum of 60 seconds of muzzle
discipline should be maintained before attempting to clear the action.

Squib Loads

A squib or squib load is a cartridge that was loaded with a substandard powder charge. When
the primer was struck and the powder detonated, there was insufficient gas pressure created
to propel the projectile down the barrel. The shooter or observer ordinarily can recognize
the report of a squib load, which is a light pop when compared to the usual loud boom that
the shooter or observer would be accustomed to hearing. In all likelihood, the squib projec¬
tile is lodged in the barrel and will have to be coaxed out, usually by knocking it out with a
dowel rod and a mallet. Failure to clear a squib load and continuing to fire can potentially
result in serious personal injury or death, and certainly the destruction of the firearm.

Slam Fire

A slam fire can be deliberate as part of the design of that particular firearm, or it can be the
result of an accidental discharge. As described in the discussion of slide-action shotguns
later in this chapter, slam fire is possible on firearms that have no trigger disconnector and
permit repeating shots to be taken as the action is manually cycled and the trigger held
down. In the context of an accidental discharge, particularly with closed-bolt automatic
firearms, a slam fire occurs when the firing pin is pushed forward so that it presents itself as
if to fire; then, as the bolt closes, the exposed firing pin comes into contact with the loaded
ammunition cartridge’s primer, typically with enough force to cause detonation to take
place. In most circumstances, a slam fire occurs when the action goes fully into battery;
however, this does not mean a slam fire could not occur as the action closes after collecting
a cartridge from the magazine, which would cause discharge when the action was out of
battery.

Firearms equipped with free-floating firing pins can be susceptible to slam fires,
especially if there is a general lack of maintenance, which causes the firing pin to
stick in the forward position. In situations where a slam fire is suspected of caus¬
ing an accidental discharge, the bolt, firing pin, and the firing-pin channel should be
very carefully inspected for accumulation of carbon fouling and the buildup of debris
and foreign matter that could cause the firing pin to seize in place. The ammunition
of preference that has been used in that firearm should also be inspected, as certain
brands of ammunition tend to run dirtier than others. Another factor in sticking fir¬
ing pins is the application of lubricating oil within the firing-pin channel. Typically
the firing-pin channel is intended to be kept dry because the presence of oil tends to
attract and trap foreign matter, which could cause the firing pin to not function prop¬
erly—either not at all or to create a situation conducive to slam fire. Not all designs

Firearms

189

that originally called for a free-floating firing pin have maintained fidelity with that
feature; to be sure that modifications were not made, the examiner may need to disas¬
semble and evaluate.

Long Guns

Long guns are firearms that are designed to be fired from the shoulder. As such, long guns
are customarily, but not always, furnished with a shoulder stock constructed of wood,
composite materials, or metal. If a shoulder stock is not present, there is the ready capac¬
ity to attach one. There are two types of long guns: rifles and shotguns. The absence of a
shoulder stock does not preclude the exhibit from being defined as a long gun, as there are
numerous variations in stock design and long guns that can be equipped with a stock but
are not so configured. Certain designs require the presence of a form of shoulder stock
due to design characteristics. The classic AR-pattern rifle requires a stock of some form to
encapsulate the recoil spring tube assembly. The Remington 1100, a semiautomatic shot¬
gun, also has a recoil spring contained in a channel set in the stock offset at an angle
from the back of the receiver. A long-gun receiver is physically larger than that of a pistol
receiver, primarily because rifle cartridges are physically larger and must be able to sustain
the higher pressures created by such cartridges.

Long-Gun Safety Systems

Safety features on long guns mimic those on handguns but primarily focus on mechani¬
cally disengaging or locking out the trigger from the rest of the firing train by flipping a
switch, the press of a button, or the movement of a slide from the fire to the safe position.
The cross bar, or push-button safety, is one of the more common long-gun safety systems.
The safety button is located within close proximity to the trigger, usually on the trigger
guard, and pressing the button into the safe position literally locks the trigger, preventing
it from moving. Another safety feature is an interlocking mechanism that prevents the
operation of the trigger unless the action is completely closed, thus preventing the firearm
from potentially discharging if the action is not completely in battery, creating a hazardous
condition. A trigger disconnector often is the design feature that accomplishes the lock-out
feature, and also prevents the trigger from operating unless a full movement of the action
has occurred. The disconnector is discussed at greater length under machine-gun conver¬
sions later in this chapter.

Rifles

A rifle is defined by 26 U.S.C. § 5845 (c) as “a firearm designed to be fired from the shoul¬
der and designed to use the energy of an explosive in a fixed cartridge to fire only a single
projectile through a rifled barrel for each single pull of the trigger.” Rifles are defined by
the physical characteristics of having a rifled bore and either having an attached shoulder
stock or the capability of having a shoulder stock that is readily attachable, even if such
stock is presently removed. In the United States, the rifle is required to have a minimum
barrel length of 16 inches and have an overall length of at least 26 inches. In the instance
of a rifle that is equipped with a stock that will fold away or that will collapse or tele¬
scope to a shorter length, then the overall measurement must be made with the stock fully
extended or folded out. The overall measurement is a separate consideration from the bar¬
rel length, and both measurements must be taken into consideration when contemplating

190

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

the legalities of the configuration of a particular rifle. When measuring the barrel length, a
permanently attached muzzle fixture such as a flash hider or compensator will be included
in both the barrel and overall length measurements. The BATFE defines permanent attach¬
ment as having been made by silver solder, welding, or pinning and welding into place. Use
of a fixative yet easily reversible process, such as a strong adhesive, would not qualify as a
permanent attachment. The firearm is a rifle based on meeting these requisite definitions
and is classified as such by the original manufacturer.

Rifles may be lever action, bolt action, single shot, self-loading, or slide action, and
the variety and style of rifles is nearly endless. Stocks may be fashioned of various grades
of hardwood or laminates, polymer, or metal. Finishes range from deep-luster blues to
chrome, stainless steel, parkerized, and enamels. Aesthetics do not concern the examiner,
as they play no part in the functional characteristics of the firearm. Within the parameters
of operating principles, rifles are among the most versatile; there has likely been a rifle
devised for every possible method of operation. The rifle simply offers more real estate
from which to develop operating systems, whether they use gas, recoil, springs, pistons, or
something that combines elements of any of them.

Lever Action The lever-action rifle is operated by the manipulation of a hinged lever that
is ordinarily attached at the bottom of the receiver and behind the trigger. Customarily, the
lever makes up a portion of the trigger guard. Lever-action rifles have been in continuous
production since the first examples started appearing in the mid- to late 1800s. Lever-
action rifles typically have a tubular magazine located underneath the barrel. Identifying
information on a lever-action rifle can be found on the barrel, receiver, or on a tang that
extends downward from the rear of the receiver that mates it to the stock. Lever-action
rifles can be had in innumerable calibers, many of which are obsolete or archaic, given
the age of a particular specimen or modern replicas chambered in an archaic caliber. The
Model 1894 Winchester is considered one of the quintessential lever-action rifles.

Bolt Action Bolt-action rifles are operated by means of manually operating a handle
attached to the bolt, which cycles the action of the firearm. Several variants of the bolt-action
rifle exist, including straight-pull bolts, where the bolt is literally pulled straight back as in
the case of the Austrian Steyr Mannlicher M/95 rifle or the Swiss Schmidt-Rubin. A bent or
straight bolt handle must be turned up and then pulled back to open the action, and these
are more common than straight-pull bolts by a large margin.

Bolt-action rifles were initially developed for military applications and include the
American Springfield, German Mauser, British Enfield, Japanese Arisaka, Russian Mosin-
Nagant, Swiss Schmitt-Ruben, and Italian Carcano. The majority of contemporary bolt-
action rifles mimic either the Enfield or the Mauser 98 design. Bolt-action rifles are ordinarily
equipped with either detachable box magazines, as in the case of the British Enfield, or an
internal magazine, as in the case of the Japanese Arisaka, the Mauser, or the Mosin-Nagant.
Commercial bolt-action rifles may be single shot, as in the case of the Winchester Models
1900,1902, and 1904, or they may be magazine fed, such as the Ruger M77 series, which have
internal magazines. Rifles equipped with internal magazines can generally be unloaded by
opening the magazine floor plate on the bottom of the stock, which will release by pressing a
button or releasing a latch. Many bolt-action rifles use detachable magazines that are removed
using the magazine release.

Many surplus military bolt-action rifles have been sporterized: The stocks may have
been reconfigured or replaced with more ornate furniture; they may have been refinished

Firearms

191

or had their military finish polished to a higher degree of luster; and it is possible that the
rifle may have been rechambered to fire a different cartridge than originally designed.
Examiners are cautioned against presuming that a particular model surplus rifle is still
chambered as it was originally, as many rifles have been rechambered and rebored to
sporting-caliber cartridges. A seemingly unlikely user of surplus World War II German
K98k bolt-action rifles postwar was the newly formed nation of Israel. These rifles were
rechambered in 7.62x51mm and likely served until the 1980s in a reserve capacity. These
rifles are readily identified by the large “7.62” engraving on the receiver ring and often on
the stock as well.

Slide Action Slide-action rifles operate by using a forward “pump” or slide to operate the
action. Manipulation of the slide loads and unloads the firearm. Slide-action rifles are typi¬
cally supplied ammunition through a tubular magazine, but box-style magazines are used
as well. A few examples of slide-action rifles include the Remington Models 14,25, 76, and
7600, and the Winchester Models 1890, 1906, and 61. The Winchester Model 1890 is often
called the “gallery gun” because of its popularity in carnival and fairground shooting gal¬
leries in the bygone era. As a matter of safety in the short ranges where gallery guns were
fired, the .22 Short was the preferred cartridge.

Single Shot Single-shot rifles are breech-loaded affairs that are operated by opening the
breech using some form of release lever. Such a rifle may be either striker fired or have an
exposed hammer to cock in preparation to fire. Examples of breech-loaded rifles include
the rolling block or the falling block, which came into existence in the mid-1800s but were
superseded relatively quickly by bolt-action rifles in service with the military forces of the
world. Except for hunting or recreational purposes, breech-loaded firearms were largely
replaced by bolt-action rifles, principally due to improvements in ammunition technology
and other inherent advantages of the bolt action.

Self-Loading Self-loading rifles are now more universally identified as semiautomatic
rifles, yet they were termed self-loading for a number of years. Like pistols, the semiauto¬
matic rifle is operated through any number of systems focused around the capture and
utilization of the energy created by the discharge of the weapon, either by gas operation or
simple blowback.

Self-loading rifles appeared around the turn of the nineteenth to the twentieth century.
Among the first to appear were from Winchester Repeating Arms, who manufactured
the self-loading rifle Models 1903 (chambered in .22 Winchester Automatic Smokeless
Cartridge), 1905 (chambered in .32 and .35 Winchester Self Loading), 1907 (chambered
in .351 Self Loading Rifle), and the 1910 (chambered in .401 Winchester Self Loading).
Remington Arms responded quickly to Winchester with the Model 8 (chambered in sev¬
eral Remington-developed calibers such as .25, .30, .32, and .35), which appeared around
the same time as the Winchester 1907. These rifles were very advanced in appearance for
the time and are still quite graceful looking, combining clean lines with classic craftsman¬
ship. These early self-loading rifles became very popular with law enforcement users until
the time of the Second World War. Postwar, semiautomatic rifles continued to escalate
in popularity in the marketplace (see Figure 4.13). Modern semiautomatic rifles can take
on endless forms, appearances, and configurations. Detachable magazines, internal maga¬
zines, and tubular under-barrel magazines are used to supply ammunition to semiauto¬
matic rifles.

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.13 Benelli MR1 semiautomatic rifle chambered in 5.56x45mm. (Image courtesy of
Benelli USA.)

The term assault rifle is a somewhat colloquial term that attempts to define a certain
species of rifles. The term is applied based on various features, design characteristics, or
configurations present on the rifle in question, yet the term assault has also been applied as
assault pistol or assault shotgun. Somewhat synonymous with assault rifle is the term para¬
military configuration, apparently to describe a rifle that aesthetically may resemble a rifle
that is currently or was previously in issue with a military force. The terms themselves are
subjective and quite vague, apparently only used to describe contemporary firearms while
typically excluding older surplus military arms of the previous generations such as bolt-
action rifles, even if they were originally configured to have the same or similar features
that would otherwise define them as assault rifles.

Certain models of rifles do overtly appear to resemble military arms; however, their
resemblance does not necessarily reflect that the firearm in question is anything more
than a rifle as the term is legally defined. Semiautomatic rifles that resemble contempo¬
rary military arms are quite common and make up a large portion of the market share of
firearms that are commercially sold. Examples include AR-pattern firearms; AK-pattern
firearms; the MSAR rifles, which resemble the Austrian Steyr AUG (Armee Universale
Gewehr or Army Universal Rifle); copies of the Israeli Galil or Finnish Valmet; copies of
the H&K G.3; copies of the FN-FAL; and so forth. The examiner/investigator is encouraged
to refrain from using the term assault rifle, as it fails to define any rifle or its functional
characteristics with any specificity and carries a certain subjective, perhaps provocative,
connotation.

In the purest legal language, there is nothing that differentiates an AR-15-pattern rifle
from a Remington Model 7400 rifle. Both examples are semiautomatic rifles that are fed
by a detachable magazine; both chamber powerful cartridges; and both expel one round
per press of the trigger. Both have shoulder stocks and otherwise meet all legal parameters
required to classify a firearm as a rifle. The differences between the two are primarily aes¬
thetic, not functional.

As in the case of an assault rifle, the terms assault shotgun or assault pistol are attempts
to define a particular species of such that bear certain aesthetic or design characteristics
that are thought to imply a paramilitary or nonsporting application, appearance, or con¬
figuration. Once again, the terms are somewhat elusive to define with any specificity, tend¬
ing to focus on particular makes and models of shotguns and pistols based upon individual
perception instead of addressing the functional capabilities or characteristics of the par¬
ticular arm in question.

Characteristics that have been identified under 27 CFR pt. 178.11 to identify an assault
rifle:

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193

A folding or telescoping stock

A pistol grip that conspicuously protrudes beneath the action of the weapon
A mounting interface for a bayonet
A flash suppressor or threaded barrel
A grenade launcher

Qualities that are deemed to constitute an assault-type pistol by 27 CFR pt. 178.11:

A detachable magazine that is attached to the pistol outside of the grip
A threaded barrel

A barrel shroud that permits one-handed shooting using the nontrigger hand
A pistol that has an unloaded mass in excess of 50 ounces
A semiautomatic version of a fully automatic weapon

Qualities that are deemed to constitute an assault-type shotgun under 27 CFR pt.
178.11:

A folding or telescoping stock

A pistol grip that protrudes conspicuously beneath the action of the weapon
A fixed magazine capacity in excess of five rounds
An ability to accept a detachable magazine

Carbines and Bull Pups A carbine is defined as a short, compact rifle. A carbine may be
an original design or a physically smaller variant of a full-sized rifle. In the classical sense,
the carbine was exactly the same as the full-sized rifle, except that the barrel was shortened
and there may have been some other modifications to the fixtures and stock to produce a
lighter and handier rifle.

Historically, the evolution of carbines goes to the days of horse-mounted armed persons,
whether they were military cavalry or ranchers. A full-sized rifle was simply too unwieldy in
this scenario, yet there was a need to carry something larger than a handgun. The carbine
evolved and led to the gradual phasing out of the full-sized rifle in favor of these carbines
for general issue in certain armed forces. The first generation of center-fire rifles using full-
sized cartridges were physically large instruments having barrel lengths that could reach
30 inches and overall lengths upwards of 4 feet. These rifles had great range and accuracy,
but did present the issue of being cumbersome. During World War II, the British Number

4 Enfield rifle was subjected to extensive modifications to provide British Commonwealth
forces fighting in jungle environments with a lighter alternative. The result was the Number

5 Enfield rifle, henceforth known as the Jungle Carbine. Using the Number 4 rifle as the
basis, the barrel length was reduced from 25 inches to slightly less than 19 inches, reducing
the overall length of the rifle by approximately 5 inches. The amount of wood used in the
stock was significantly reduced, and engineers went so far as to mill away as much metal
from the receiver as possible. As a result, the Number 5 weighed in at some seven pounds,
compared to the Number 4 at almost nine pounds. Unfortunately, the Number 5 did not
perform as well as expected. It still fired the standard full-powered .303 British service car¬
tridge. However, the recoil was heavy for such a rifle, and it was not nearly as accurate as was
expected, especially given the pedigree of the Enfield action.

194

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

The Russians developed and fielded carbine versions of the standard 1891 Mosin
Nagant rifle, itself a fully dimensioned rifle. Through a series of successive steps, the
German Model 98 rifle was developed into the definitive carbine variant, the K98k (K for
Karbine and k for kurz), roughly translated to mean Short 98 Carbine.

The United States experimented with creating carbine variants of the Ml Garand; however,
they were never fully developed. The US Ml carbine, devised by Winchester Repeating Arms,
was an entirely separate model from the Ml Garand and was not developed as an offshoot
from the Garand. The U.S. military had not used the M16 long before Colt had developed a
carbine version of it. The first carbine version, initially given the official designation of XM177,
differed from the standard M16 by introducing a two-position collapsible stock and shortened
barrels of various lengths. Later, it simply became known as the CAR 15. The carbine variant
of the M16 has since become officially designated the M4 in U.S. military terminology. The M4
equipped with an 11 ‘/ 2 -inch barrel is further identified as the Commando; the standard M4
comes with a MU-inch barrel, and the standard M16 comes with a 20-inch barrel.

The term M4 was the subject of a lawsuit brought by Colt against Bushmaster Firearms.
In the suit, Colt claimed trademark infringement by Bushmaster, who used the M4 term
to market their version of the rifle based on the AR-15 platform. The suit was eventually
resolved when the court determined that the term M4 was designated by the U.S. military,
who applied it to a specific model of firearm, and therefore the term resides in the public
domain. This decision also noted that the term M4 had been applied by other manufactur¬
ers of similar arms and even applied to other unrelated products as a model designation
(Memorandum Decision 2005).

A bull pup is a rifle that has very compact external dimensions. The archetypal approach
used to create a bull pup is to relocate the receiver to the back of the rifle, allowing for a bar¬
rel of reasonable length to be used. The most obvious clue of a bull pup is the location of the
magazine well, which is behind the grip and trigger. Bull pups may offer certain ergonomic
advantages to the operator in addition to the reduced overall physical size.

Bull pups can be deceiving in their appearance, often mistaken as short-barreled rifles;
however, their actual barrel length can be well within legal requirements, as the barrel
is mostly contained within the stock and just a short length, or even just the muzzle, is
left exposed (see Figure 4.14). Examples of bull-pup designs include the Steyr AUG, the
French FAMAS, the British Enfield L85 series, and the Walther G22. Fabrique Nationale’s
FS2000 and the PS90 are both relatively late offerings that are bull-pup-configured rifles.
Both have all-encompassing stocks that contain the receiver and barrel such that little of
either is exposed. The FS2000 is chambered in 5.56x45mm, accepts the AR-15/M15-pattern
magazine, and is available as a machine gun to legally authorized entities as the F2000 (see
Figure 4.15). The PS-90 is the semiautomatic version of the P-90 submachine gun. The PS-90
has a rectangular shape and has the unique feature of a magazine that lies flat on the top of
the receiver. A distinguishing feature is the amount of barrel that protrudes from the stock.
The PS-90 standard barrel measures 16.10 inches, and the overall length is 26.23 inches. As
a submachine gun, the P-90 barrel length is 10.39 inches in length (FNH USA n.d.).

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc., marketed a bull-pup configuration variant of their vener¬
able Model 500 12-gauge shotgun. The 500 bull pup was available in 12 gauge only and
was equipped with either an I 8 V 2 " or 20" barrel, with a capacity of six rounds for the I 8 V 2 "
barrel and nine for the 20" barrel. An eight-shot magazine was optional. Mossberg sold the
same gun under the Maverick Arms line.

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195

Figure 4.14 Believe it or not, this is a Ruger Mini-14 that has been fitted into an aftermarket
stock, giving it the appearance of a bull-pup configuration. The barreled action is removed from
the factory stock and seated into this chassis. An internal bar connects the factory trigger on
the action to the user trigger. Without seeing the action, it is possible to identify the gun as a
Mini-14 by looking at the front sight and the magazine well. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.15 Fabrique Nationale F2000 in the hands of a Peruvian sailor. This weapon is avail¬
able as a select-fire weapon or as a semiautomatic rifle (as the FS 2000) and is a classic bull
pup,- note the compactness of the weapon. (U.S. Marine Corps image; photographer Cpl. Brian
J. Slaght.)

Contemporary Copies of Classic Military Weapons A current trend is the reintroduc¬
tion of older pattern military firearms that are semiautomatic rifles, not machine guns as the
originals were. Semiautomatic rifles patterned after the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR),
Thompson submachine gun, Suomi M31 submachine gun, STEN gun, Sterling submachine
gun, the UZI, the Degtyarev and the Goryunov (both are machine guns of Soviet design), the
German Sturmgewehr (official designations MP-43, MP-44, and StG-44), and the German
FG-42 are or have been manufactured and commercially available. Wise Lite Arms, based in
Boyd, Texas, manufactures a copy of the British BREN Mark II machine gun as a semiauto¬
matic rifle. Mere observation of a firearm of these appearances and configurations would be
insufficient to deem them as contraband. Such models as described here do not include fire¬
arms that were originally manufactured as machine guns that have been remanufactured or
reconfigured by the removal of parts so that the weapon would fire semiautomatically only.

196

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

These firearms are newly manufactured receivers that have been designed to function
as semiautomatic weapons, although they aesthetically resemble and may even be marked
to mimic period originals. One quality that often betrays these semiautomatic copies is
that the originals had short barrels, but in order for the copies to be compliant as rifles, the
barrel length must be at least 16 inches. The exception to this would be to designate the
newly manufactured receiver as a handgun, thereby eliminating the barrel-length issue.
PPS-43c, manufactured in Radom, Poland, by Pioneer Arms, is one such example, being
a semiautomatic version of the venerable World War II-era Russian submachine gun,
complete with an inoperable folding stock. As such, it is classified as a handgun. Another
wartime-era Russian submachine gun, the PPS-41, has served as a pattern for a contem¬
porary semiautomatic rifle, manufactured in Germany as the Model SKL-41. To date, it is
unknown in the United States. As is always the case, before making snap determinations,
a detailed technical inquiry is in order.

Short-Barreled Rifles

A short-barreled rifle is defined by 26 U.S.C. § 5845(a) (3) as “a rifle having a barrel or
barrels of less than sixteen inches in length.” A short-barreled rifle is a firearm that was
originally constructed as a rifle; however, the barrel length has been modified so that its
length is shorter than the requisite 16 inches. When contemplating whether the rifle has
been made or remade into a short-barreled rifle, recall the basic characteristics that define
a rifle: the firearm has or originally had a shoulder stock or the capability to readily attach
one, has a rifled bore, and an overall length of at least 26 inches. Barrel length reduction
can be accomplished by shortening the existing barrel by trimming or by replacing the
barrel with one that is shorter. Short-barreled rifles can also be manufactured as such by a
professional gun maker and titled accordingly, so the term should not be inferred to merely
mean that it could only apply to modified firearms.

Certain firearm designs are not readily reconfigurable by replacing barrels, a question
addressed by determining how the barrel is attached to the receiver. The AK-pattern firearm,
for example, has a barrel that is pressed into the barrel trunnion, which is then mated to the
receiver and the entire assembly riveted in place (see Figure 4.16). There simply is no practical
quick replacement for such a barrel. Likewise, barrels that are threaded into the receiver are
then typically pinned or otherwise locked into the receiver. It is not practical to cut the bar¬
rel down either, due to the location of the gas system relative the muzzle. On the other hand,
an AR-pattern rifle can be reconfigured to a short-barreled rifle quite easily. On an AR-type

Figure 4.16 A semiautomatic copy of a Russian Krinkov, an AK variant. This exhibit is not a
machine gun, it is a short-barreled rifle because of the shoulder stock and barrel that measures
approximately 8.5 inches. The weapon was assembled using a parts kit mated to a U.S.-made
receiver. (Image from author's collection.)

Firearms

197

firearm, the entire upper receiver assembly can be replaced in moments with an upper receiver
that has been mated with a shorter barrel ( 7 V 2 -, IOV 2 -, 11-, and 14‘/2-inch barrel lengths are
common, but other lengths do exist). Replacing an AR barrel can be a time-consuming and
somewhat complex undertaking for an inexperienced person; however, upper receivers with
short barrels already mounted are readily available through commercial channels.

Rifles such as the FN SCAR have modular configuration capabilities that are designed
for rapid reconfiguration to suit the operational needs of the user; it is simply a matter of
acquiring a suitable barrel. Handguns that have had shoulder stocks affixed to them may
also be classified as short-barreled rifles, as they no longer are defined as handguns when
the shoulder stock is attached. When determining whether a rifle qualifies as a short-bar¬
reled rifle, the examiner must take into account whether the exhibit was originally manu¬
factured in its present condition when examined. The method of modification should be
identified and firmly established.

Certain rifles with short barrels are exempted from legal issues attached to short-barreled
rifles, as they have been reclassified as curios and relics or antiques. Winchester rifles, in par¬
ticular the Models 1873,1892,1894, and others, were frequently special ordered and delivered
with barrels shorter than 16 inches before the National Firearms Act placed regulatory provi¬
sions on short-barreled rifles. The most current published ATF Curios and Relics List should
be consulted if questions arise concerning the Curio and Relic status of a particular firearm.

During the late 1800s and into the first part of the twentieth century, it was not uncom¬
mon for a handgun to have the ability to attach a shoulder stock. Nearly all examples of
Luger pistols, the Mauser c/96 Broomhandle, certain varieties of Model 1911, Browning Hi
Power pistols, and some revolvers were manufactured with a lug to permit attachment of a
shoulder stock (see Figure 4.17). In such bona fide original historical examples, no violation
of law occurs insomuch as an original shoulder stock (not a contemporary copy of a vintage
shoulder stock) is attached. Original shoulder stocks can generally be readily identified by
an applied serial number, quite often matching the gun they are attached to as a rig, or by
period inspection or property markings. Obviously, such period examples tend to exhibit
patina, aging and wear associated with objects of relative age. Modern reproductions of these
stocks do exist and closely resemble period pieces and may be marked in such a way to imi¬
tate originals. Certain modern handguns have aftermarket stocks produced that will attach
to them, thereby creating a short-barreled rifle when they are affixed. When contemplating
identification, the examiner must ensure that the exhibit is, in fact, a rifle and not a handgun.

Many firearms that are configured to appear as rifles have been reconfigured in such
a way by the original manufacturer to be manufactured as legally classified handguns.
Recently the Radom Arsenal in Poland (marketing under the name Pioneer Arms) began
manufacturing a handgun patterned after the World War II-era Soviet PPS-43 submachine
gun (also known as the Sudayev, the designer’s last name); however, the new product, dubbed
PPS-43C, differs from the original for two reasons. The first is that it operates as a semiau¬
tomatic, not a fully automatic firearm (machine gun). The second is that, while equipped
with a shoulder stock, it is permanently mounted in a folded position so that it cannot be
extended to offer the shooter a shoulder mount; hence it is defined as a handgun, not a rifle.

If there is uncertainty about the original classification of a firearm, the question
may have to be answered by researching the manufacturer’s A&D (Acquisitions and
Dispositions) records to ascertain what type of firearm the exhibit was originally manu¬
factured as. If the manufacturer has gone out of business, a firearms trace could be made
by the BATFE to ascertain what the firearm was categorized as in the course of commerce.

198

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.17 During World War II, a female Canadian armaments worker tries out an Inglis-
manufactured Hi Power pistol equipped with a shoulder stock. (Image from Canadian National
Archives.)

In lieu of any other existing documentation, examiners must draw upon their own experi¬
ence and application of the definitions of a long gun versus a handgun. Other examples
of arms legally classified as “handguns” but resembling rifles include the Iver Johnson
Enforcer, a copy of the U.S. government Ml carbine; sundry AK-pattern clones with inert
folding stocks; and AK-pattern clones without any form of stock or attachment apparatus,
such as the Romanian-produced Draco, which is classified as a pistol. In 2008, Kahr Arms
started manufacturing the Model 1927A-1 Thompson pistol, patterned exactly after the
Thompson Model 1927 submachine gun; however, this contemporary version is semiauto¬
matic only and does not feature a shoulder stock or any ready means to attach one. Original
Thompson submachine guns did have the capability of removing the shoulder stock, and
there is a slot on the lower portion at the rear of the receiver where the stock affixes. This
newly made Thompson semiautomatic weapon can be configured by the factory as a rifle,
pistol, or a short-barreled rifle; it is not made available as a machine gun regardless of its
configuration. Most AR-pattern handguns must be equipped with a buffer tube extending
from the rear of the upper receiver; however, in such an instance, the buffer tube has been
redesigned to not permit installation of either a collapsible or full rifle stock. This does
not prevent the original buffer tube from being removed and a standard rifle buffer tube
being installed in its place. The Czech VZ61 Scorpion pistol closely resembles the CZ M61J,
a compact submachine gun with a folding wire stock. The two are marked differently on
the receiver but overtly are nearly indistinguishable from one another. The VZ61 obvi¬
ously lacks the stock and is not capable of full-auto fire. UZI semiautomatic carbines are
easily converted into short-barreled rifles. The UZI carbine was equipped with the folding
stock or with a solid wooden stock and a 16-inch barrel. The UZI barrel is removed easily

Firearms

199

Figure 4.18 The Rossi Ranch Hand is a lever-action handgun, although it very much appears
to be a cut-down rifle and could easily be mistaken for one. (Image courtesy of Braztech
International, L.C.)

by unscrewing the barrel nut from the receiver and pulling the barrel out. There are plas¬
tic dummy “replica” barrels to give the look of a short-barreled weapon, but these are not
legally considered barrels.

Weapon Made from a Rifle

A weapon made from a rifle is defined by 26 U.S.C. § 5845 (a) (4) as “a weapon made from
a rifle if such weapon as modified has an overall length of less than 26 inches or a barrel or
barrels of less than 16 inches in length.” Such a weapon was originally constructed as a rifle
and bore the requisite features and characteristics of a rifle before modification. Many per¬
sons are not familiar with the term, identifying any shortened rifle as a short-barreled rifle.
The receiver remains intact, but substantial modifications will have been made. In nearly
all cases, the overall length is reduced by cutting down the shoulder stock, perhaps leaving
only the short “pistol grip” portion of the stock, and reducing the barrel length. In the case
of a rifle with a functional folding or collapsible stock, the stock must be fully extended
when a definitive overall length measurement is taken. As in the case for a short-barreled
rifle, the examiner must conclude that the exhibit was not originally manufactured in the
configuration it exists in when examined.

Many rifles can serve as the host to manufacture such a weapon, the only real limita¬
tion being set by the presence of the gas system or magazine that runs the length of the
barrel, or part of the operating system that is set in the stock. The examiner should estab¬
lish and document the method(s) used to effect the alterations. The Rossi Ranch Hand is
one such example of a firearm that is legally classified as a handgun yet could easily be
mistaken as a short-barreled rifle or a weapon made from a rifle (see Figure 4.18). Although
legally classified as a handgun, the Ranch Hand is lever action, having a barrel length of 12
inches and an overall length of 24 inches. The stub stock is not intended to be used to fire
the weapon from the shoulder. The Ranch Hand is available in some classic calibers: .45
Long Colt, .45 Colt, .44 Magnum, and .38/.357.

Shotguns

A shotgun is defined by 26 USC § 5845(d) as follows:

The term “shotgun” means a weapon designed or redesigned, made or remade, and intended
to be fired from the shoulder and designed or redesigned and made or remade to use the
energy of the explosive in a fixed shotgun shell to fire through a smooth bore either a number
of projectiles (ball shot) or a single projectile for each pull of the trigger, and shall include any
such weapon which may be readily restored to fire a fixed shotgun shell.

200

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

In the United States, a shotgun must have a minimum barrel length of 18 inches and
overall length of at least 26 inches. As with rifles, barrel length and overall length must be
taken into consideration independently of one another when a classification is made con¬
cerning a shotgun suspected of modification or alteration that affects the requisite dimen¬
sions. Like rifles, shotguns are found in a broad array of configurations and appearances.
The same basic shotgun receiver can easily be configured as a tactical-style shotgun seem¬
ingly more appropriate for military or law enforcement applications, or it can just as easily
be provided a longer barrel or other aesthetic qualities that configure it for hunting, trap
and skeet, or other traditionally defined sporting purposes. Shotguns can be single shot,
operated by slide action, lever action, bolt action or semiautomatically.

Breech-Loaded Shotguns The most basic shotgun is a single-barrel, breech-loaded type.
The action is opened by a release mechanism, just like breech-loaded handguns and rifles.
Most breech-loaded shotguns have an exposed hammer; however, internal strikers may
be encountered in lieu of exposed hammers. The striker would be cocked by closing the
action. Breech-loaded shotguns can have multiple barrels. A double-barrel shotgun may
have barrels side by side (abbreviated SxS) or over/under (abbreviated O/U). Functionally,
there is no difference between the two except in the arrangement of the barrels on the
receiver and where the breech release latch is located. By virtue of design, double-barrel
shotguns are breech-loaded weapons and, like single-barrel breech loaders, may feature
exposed hammers that must be cocked in preparation to fire. When handling a striker-
type breech-loaded shotgun, caution must be exercised when closing the action due to the
uncertainty whether the strikers will discharge when cocked, even without trigger input.
Double-barrel shotguns may have a single trigger or double triggers within the trigger
guard, with each trigger serving to function a separate chamber, one per barrel.

Slide Action The slide action is more often called the “pump,” to the extent that if one
mentions a slide action, it likely would not be recognized in conversation. The slide-action
shotgun has been around since the late 1800s and shows no signs of diminishing in popu¬
larity. Slide-action shotguns have a reputation for ruggedness, reliability, and durability.
Slide-action shotguns are probably the most versatile type of firearm produced—used
by hunters of all types, sport shooters, and military and law enforcement operators, who
can use them with either lethal or less-lethal munitions. The two most popular models of
slide-action shotgun in the United States today are the Remington 870 and the Mossberg
500 series. Maverick Arms, a subsidiary of Mossberg, sells essentially the same product as
Mossberg, although marked slightly differently. Winchester and Smith & Wesson mar¬
keted slide-action shotguns, but neither continues to do so. Fabrique Nationale and Benelli
both market slide-action shotguns set up in various configurations for different users, and
they are joined by numerous other firms such as Harrington & Richardson (including New
England Firearms) and the Chinese arms maker, NORINCO.

Slide-action shotguns have a tubular magazine located underneath the barrel. With a
loaded magazine, cycling the action loads the chamber. Pulling the slide to the rear ejects
the spent hull and cocks the hammer. Slide-action shotguns may have internal hammers,
as in the case of the Remington 870 or the Mossberg 500, or an exposed hammer that can
manually be manipulated, as in the case of the Ithaca 37. In a properly functioning slide-
action firearm, the slide cannot be pulled to the rear until the action is unlocked, ordi¬
narily accomplished by pressing the trigger. In instances where discharge is not desired,
an action-release lever or button is furnished, typically in the area of the ejection port or

Firearms

201

trigger guard, usually located on the right side of the receiver. Depressing the action release
will permit the slide to be moved to open the action. Caution must be exercised because if
there are additional live cartridges available to be loaded, a live cartridge might inadver¬
tently be chambered if the action is fully opened. A gradual pull of the slide to the rear that
allows the loaded cartridge to present itself will prevent an unintentional reloading.

The simplicity and durability of slide-action shotguns has ensured their continued suc¬
cess and even preference over semiautomatic shotguns. The main failures of slide-action
shotguns are caused primarily by operator error such as loading shells backwards, or by
short stroking the action. Much like a pistol, a slide-action shotgun can malfunction if
the operator does not exert sufficient force or travel on the slide to completely cycle the
action. Modern slide-action shotguns have separate loading and ejection ports. Ejection
occurs through the port normally located on the right side of the receiver, although left-
hand versions are available that eject to the left. Tactically minded operators will note that
a combat or tactical load can be accomplished by introducing a live shell into the chamber
through the ejection port with the shell carrier out of the way. The loading port is located
on the bottom of the receiver and allows shells to be loaded into the tubular magazine.
Remington’s Models 10, 17, and 29 featured a combination loading/ejection port on the
bottom of the receiver. The Remington SP-10 is a semiautomatic shotgun and should not be
confused with the earlier Model 10, which was manufactured from 1908 to 1929.

Lever-Action Shotguns Lever-action shotguns are rather uncommon, their commercial
success likely being tempered by the appearance of slide-action and automatic shotguns,
which appeared around the same time. The Chinese arms maker NORINCO manufac¬
tured the Model 87W, a contemporary copy of the Winchester Model 1887. The shotgun
is 12 gauge, has a 20-inch barrel, and a capacity of five shots. Another contemporary copy
originated from the Italian firm Chiappa Firearms. The Chiappa version differs in that it
has 22- or 24-inch barrels and a capacity of upwards of seven shots. The original Winchester
Model 1887 was capable of handling black powder loads only. A redesigned version, the
Model 1901, was capable of firing shells loaded with smokeless powder and was available
in 10 gauge only. The Models 1887 and 1901 were breech loaded; the shells were fed into a
tubular magazine underneath the barrel when the action was opened. The Ithaca Model
66 was a single-shot lever-action shotgun that was available in 12 and 20 gauge and .410.

Bolt-Action Shotguns Bolt-action shotguns are largely archaic; however, they are encoun¬
tered from time to time. Mossberg manufactured magazine-fed bolt-action shotguns, includ¬
ing the Model 385 and the more contemporary Model 695. Mossberg probably sold as many
Model 385s to secondary retailers branded under their name as it did Mossberg-marked prod¬
ucts. The Stevens/Savage Models 38,39,58,59,124, and 238 were other examples of magazine-
fed, bolt-action shotguns. Functionally, bolt-action shotguns operate exactly the same way as
bolt-action rifles, depending on which bolt-action rifle the designer drew inspiration from.

Semiautomatic Shotguns Semiautomatic shotguns work in the same manner as other
auto-loaded firearms, by capturing the energy released by the expulsion of a projectile to
cycle the action. Auto-loading shotguns started to appear around 1900 and, like so many
other firearms, the concept was pioneered by John Browning. Practically every company
that markets shotguns produces semiautomatic models. Remington produced a series of
auto-loading shotguns, some of which were Browning design, predating the introduction
of the 1100 in the early 1960s. Remington’s Model 1100 and its variants is one of the longest

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

continuously produced auto-loading shotguns. Winchester produced a series of auto loaders,
also of Browning design, by obtaining the manufacturing rights; Browning designs were also
manufactured by Browning Arms. For the most part, auto-loading shotguns are manipu¬
lated in exactly the same way as slide-action shotguns, save for the auto-loading operation.
The Italian gun makers Benelli, Beretta, and Fabarm produced some of the finest auto-load-
ing shotguns made, both as sporting pieces and models marketed toward tactical operators.
Fabrique National markets a comprehensive line of auto-loading shotguns as well.

Shotguns have been manufactured capable of either slide- or auto-loading function.
The SPAS-12 and SPAS-15, both products of the Italian firm Luigi Franchi s.p.a., were
capable of acting as either a slide action or as an automatic. It is often, but erroneously,
believed that the term SPAS was somehow derived from the “s.p.a” in the Franchi name,
which is actually the business entity type. The model terminology was an acronym, SPAS
(sporting-purpose automatic shotgun). Both the SPAS-12 and SPAS-15 are 12-gauge shot¬
guns. To convert the SPAS-12 from slide to semiautomatic firing, the action was closed, a
button underneath the slide was depressed, and the slide moved slightly to the rear until
locked in a position marked by the letter M on the barrel shroud. Once locked, the shotgun
behaved as an auto-loader. Another interesting feature was a magazine cutoff function that
permitted the shotgun to be breech loaded by the operator. The SPAS-12 was imported
into the United States for a relatively brief period of time, and was available in several
configurations. An auto-loading-only version of the SPAS-12, the LAW-12, was also avail¬
able, and physically looked very similar. Another variant, the SAS-12, was the slide-action-
only version. The SPAS-15 bore a resemblance to the AR-10 (the AR rifle chambered in
7.62x51mm) and the USAS-12, another auto-loading shotgun of that era. The SPAS-15 was
fed by a detachable magazine holding six rounds. The SPAS-15 was very briefly available
for commercial sale in the United States; estimates vary from 180-300 shotguns imported
before the model was banned from further importation in 1989. Even rarer than the shot¬
guns were additional magazines; according to anecdotal information, all available spare
magazines that were imported for SPAS-15 were acquired by a single arms dealer in Miami,
Florida, at that time. The Benelli M3 shotgun converts from slide to auto loading with a
simple quarter turn of the selector ring and is available commercially.

The Russian Saiga 12,20, and .410 are self-loading shotguns. The term Saiga represents
an entire product line of hunting rifles and shotguns manufactured by Izhmash, located in
the Udmurt Republic of Russia. The Saiga shotgun model indicates the round it is cham¬
bered for: 12 gauge, 20 gauge, or .410. The Saiga shotgun is based on the Kalashnikov
method of operation and overtly resembles the AK-pattern rifle, except for the dimen¬
sional differences. Like the AK, the Saiga shotguns are fed by detachable box magazines
with capacities of 2, 5, or 8 rounds, although larger capacity magazines and drums are
available. Because the operating system is based on the AK rifle, the Saiga is widely con¬
sidered to be an extremely reliable auto-loading shotgun. Its gas system is tolerant of highl¬
and low-pressure shells and continues to cycle reliably, which has been an impediment
to auto-loading shotguns in general. To support different hunting, sporting, and tactical
applications, the Saiga-12 uses screw-on muzzle chokes and other accessories, and the gas
system is adjustable to suit the type of ammunition being used. The Saiga 12 can chamber
2%- (70mm) or 3-inch (76mm) shells. The Saiga 12 is made in a variety of configurations,
with barrels of 17 or 23 inches in length (Izhmash OJSC n.d.).

The Vepr 12 is another Russian semiautomatic shotgun. The Vepr bears a strong
resemblance to the Saiga, and it is easy to mistake the two from a distance. The Vepr is

Firearms

203

manufactured by MOLOT, while the Saiga is manufactured by Izhmash. Like the Saiga,
the Vepr is based on the Kalashnikov operating system and is available in several barrel
lengths. Two interesting features that distinguish the Vepr 12 from the Saiga is a magazine
locking mechanism that does not require that the magazine be inserted at an angle to seat
in the receiver, and the bolt, which has a hold-open feature.

A very recent addition to the semiautomatic shotgun market is the Model 1216, manu¬
factured by SRM Arms. The shotgun has a very modern, bull-pup-style appearance. The
receiver is encased in a polymer shell. The magazine is rather novel. It is comprised of four
tubes that rotate on an axis. The entire magazine assembly is quickly removable. The stan¬
dard 1216 is 34 inches in length with an 18-inch barrel, although short-barreled versions
are also available.

Three semiautomatic shotguns, the USAS-12, Striker 12, and the Streetsweeper were
retroactively reclassified as destructive devices in 2001 by an ATF administrative ruling.
ATF Ruling 2001-1 mandated that these shotguns be registered into the National Firearms
Registry by May 1, 2001, and provided legal opinion that served as the basis for the reclas¬
sification. Examples of these models that were not registered by the deadline are now
considered contraband arms. The Striker 12 was manufactured by Sentinel Arms and the
Streetsweeper by SWD/Cobray (designed in Rhodesia and initially manufactured in South
Africa). In addition to the 12-gauge Streetsweeper, SWD manufactured a .410 version. The
Striker 12 and the Streetsweeper were both supplied ammunition from a drum magazine.
The USAS-12 bears resemblance to the AR-pattern rifle in its general layout, outside of the
dimensional differences, and is magazine fed. It was manufactured by Interord (RAMO
Defense) in Tennessee. Daewoo Precision Industries of South Korea had manufactured
a fully automatic version of the USAS-12; however, it is likely that there are few, if any,
examples in the United States.

Drillings

A drilling firearm combines both rifle and shotgun barrels within a single frame or receiver.
Drillings are unusual in the United States, but are very popular in Europe. A drilling has
two or more barrels, quite frequently up to four, configured as over/under, side by side, or
barrels in four positions. Drillings are breech-loaded firearms and are often quite ornate
in appearance. Historically, a number of “survival guns” that are drillings were manufac¬
tured, generally firing smaller gauge shot shells and smaller caliber rifle cartridges. Such
guns were included in survival kits for aircrews and in shipboard life raff kits. In the United
States, a drilling is classified as a rifle since it contains a rifled barrel.

Short-Barreled Shotguns

A short-barreled shotgun is defined by 26 U.S.C. § 5845 (a) (1) as “a shotgun having a barrel
or barrels of less than 18 inches in length.” Such shotguns are often erroneously referred to
as “sawed off shotguns,” a technically and grammatically incorrect term. The more appro¬
priate terms are either “sawn off shotgun” or “short-barreled shotgun.” A short-barreled
shotgun originally had a stock, an overall length greater than 26 inches, and barrel(s) over
18 inches in length. As with rifles, the barrel length can be changed either by replacing
the barrel with one of a shorter length or by shortening the existing barrel. Many shotgun
designs feature a barrel that is readily and easily removed without tools or advanced knowl¬
edge. The barrel length must be taken into account to the exclusion of the overall length
of the shotgun in question. For the short-barreled shotgun definition to apply, the overall

204

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.19 This Ithaca Model 66 12-gauge shotgun has been remade into a weapon made
from a shotgun. The overall length and barrel length dimensions are used to make this deter¬
mination. (Image from author's collection.)

length must remain greater than 26 inches. Practically any type of shotgun can be made
into a short-barreled shotgun. Breech-loaded shotguns can be made very short, whereas
the ability to reduce the length of a slide-operated or auto-loading shotgun is compromised
by the presence of under-barrel tubular magazines, stocks, and other fixtures inherent to
the particular design that cannot be removed. Like rifles, short-barreled shotguns can be
constructed as such by a gun maker.

Weapon Made from a Shotgun

Another variation of a shotgun is the weapon made from a shotgun and is defined under 26
U.S.C. § 5845 (a) (2): “a weapon made from a shotgun if such weapon as modified has an
overall length of less than 26 inches or a barrel or barrels of less than 18 inches in length.”
To be a weapon made from a shotgun, the firearm must have been originally manufactured
as a shotgun and bear the requisite characteristics of a shotgun, most conspicuously the
smooth bore. A weapon made from a shotgun is often mistakenly called a short-barrel or
sawn-off shotgun in the vernacular, but legally, the “weapon made from a shotgun” defi¬
nition is distinct. A weapon made from a shotgun will have both the stock and barrel cut
down into a very compact weapon (see Figure 4.19). The stereotypical candidate of choice
to manufacture a weapon made from a shotgun is a single-shot, breech-loaded shotgun.
The stock is cut away to leave a minimal amount of grip, and the barrel may only just
extend to the end of the stock forward of the receiver. As is often the case, when the bar¬
rel is cut down, the means of attaching the stock to the barrel is removed, so wire or tape
must be used to hold the forward portion of the stock on. Auto loading shotguns and slide-
action shotguns generally cannot be cut down enough to qualify as a weapon made from a
shotgun due to the design particulars of these types.

Chokes Shotgun barrels are manufactured with a level of constriction in them called
choke. There are five basic types of choke, and they are, for all intents and purposes, the
same between manufacturers. Generally, the choke is found marked on the barrel, since
the choke is a function of the barrel, not the receiver. Occasionally, the term choke may be
substituted for the term bore, which could create some confusion as it is not uncommon in
British circles to reference the gauge as the bore. A choke may also be an external attach¬
ment installed on the muzzle of the shotgun. There are shotgun barrels that accept a choke
tube at the muzzle. These choke tubes may be a type that screws on or otherwise fastens

Firearms

205

Table 4.1 Shotgun Bore Choke Values

Choke Name

Barrel Constriction
(inches)

Cylinder

None

Improved cylinder

.010"

Modified

.020"

Improved modified

.025"-.030"

Full

.035"-.040"

onto the muzzle and somewhat resembles a flash hider. Shotgun barrels can be internally
threaded at the muzzle to accept a screw-in choke, which is inserted into the barrel and
secured in place using a dedicated wrench. There may be subtle variations in the amount
of choke prescribed by the manufacturer; these ranges are approximate. (See Table 4.1.)

The purpose of the choke is to constrict the patterning of shot as it spreads out over
a given range. The tighter the bore constriction, the tighter the shot group patterning
will be as the distance from the muzzle increases. Individual shotguns will pattern dif¬
ferently in terms of shot-pattern distribution on a target over a given distance. If shot
patterning is relevant to the investigation, the examiner is encouraged to test pattern the
shotgun over a series of distances using like-type ammunition to what was used in the
event under investigation. Investigators seeking to make distance determinations are
cautioned that individual shotguns have individual patterning characteristics. A shot¬
gun patterning is the bias of shot-pattern dispersal, or spread, over any given distance. A
shotgun may bias its patterning left or right, and up or down; this means that the major¬
ity of shot in the grouping will be focused in a center of mass that was not necessarily
the point of aim that the shooter intended, assuming that the shooter was able to hit the
intended point of aim.

Destructive Devices

A destructive device is defined by 26 U.S.C. § 5845(f) (2) as

any type of weapon by whatever name known which will, or which may be readily converted
to, expel a projectile by the action of an explosive or other propellant, the barrel or barrels of
which have a bore of more than one-half inch in diameter, except a shotgun or shotgun shell
which the Secretary finds is generally recognized as particularly suitable for sporting purposes.

Objects such as bombs, grenades, rockets having a propellant charge greater than four
ounces, missiles having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce,
mines, mortars, bazookas, rocket launchers, recoilless rifles, cannons, naval guns, howit¬
zers, and other similar devices and implements are also defined as destructive devices. A
subtle variation to the classification of a destructive device is the M203 grenade launcher.
The M203 is a 40mm grenade launcher that is installed underneath the M16 rifle; however,
any suitable weapon equipped with the MIL-1913/STANAG rail system could serve as the
host weapon. The M203 can also be used as a stand-alone firearm with a specialized frame.
The purchase of the receiver portion, excluding the barrel, of the M203 presently is treated
as the purchase of any regular firearm, as it is not defined as a destructive device. That
being said, the barrel, being 40mm in bore diameter and rifled, is a destructive device and

206

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

is subject to applicable regulations therein. This rationale may leave some to question the
logic, but the answer is simple: In theory, any smooth or rifled bore of any diameter could
be affixed to the M203 and be usable. As long as such bore was less than one-half inch in
diameter, found to be particularly suited for sporting purposes if greater than one-half
inch, or fired shot shells, then the destructive-device definition would not apply.

Suppressors, Silencers, Moderators, Mufflers, and Cans

The definition of firearm silencer and firearm muffler in 18 U.S.C. 921(a) (24) is as follows:

The terms “firearm silencer” and “firearm muffler” mean any device for silencing, muffling,
or diminishing the report of a portable firearm, including any combination of parts, designed
or redesigned, and intended for use in assembling or fabricating a firearm silencer or firearm
muffler, and any part intended only for use in such assembly or fabrication.

Firearm suppressors are also referred to as “silencers,” “moderators,” “mufflers,” and
“cans.” Regardless of what the device is called, they are all single in purpose. Suppressors
have existed nearly as long as the modern firearm, for the noise generated by gunfire has
always been a nuisance. Hiram P. Maxim (the son of Hiram Maxim, inventor of the Maxim
machine gun) has gone into history as the father of the suppressor. However, indepen¬
dent research into the subject by other persons in various nations has resulted in various
approaches being taken in the effort to suppress, if not eliminate, the noise generated by
the report of a gunshot (see Figure 4.20). Suppressors should not be confused with other
muzzle attachments such as flash hiders, muzzle brakes, compensators, chokes, and other
similar items whose function on the firearm is not to reduce the noise or report of the gun¬
shot. Suppressor design and development has been an active process around the world and
is subject to ongoing improvement and refinement. There have been efforts to suppress all
types of firearms that have achieved varying degrees of success. To date, even shotguns and
high-powered, large-caliber firearms have been successfully suppressed.

Despite how these devices are portrayed, suppressors have a much broader scope of
application. Suppressors have been stereotypically associated with professional assassins to
do “hits,” secret government agents, poachers, and military operators requiring stealth and
surreptitious use of firearms. Anecdotal and historical evidence would appear to support

Figure 4.20 (See color insert.) Stoeger Air Gun X20 suppressor schematic showing baffles and
an expansion chamber. (Image courtesy of Benelli USA.)

Firearms

207

the use of suppressors in all the aforementioned applications; however, these are not the
only uses for a suppressor. Television and movies certainly have played a role in the public
perception of the suppressor, as well as how a suppressed firearm is expected to behave.
Untold thousands of suppressors are legitimately possessed in the United States and used
for their intended purpose—the abatement of the noise created by gunfire. Modern sup¬
pressors are often more effective at abating noise than the best ear protection, and they can
be used to great benefit, such as in a training environment where the ability to hear a voice
is a safety issue, in addition to prolonged and repeated noise exposure issues on the part of
students and especially instructors.

A report published in August 1968 by the U.S. Army’s Frankford Arsenal reported
the findings of research that investigated the then state of the art of suppression of small
arms. The report was coauthored by Leonard W. Skochko and Harry A. Greveris. The
authors defined three sources of sound that occur during shooting, stating that, “the three
noise sources are relatively independent of each other and, consequently, require differ¬
ent techniques for their attention” (Skochko and Greveris 1968). The three sources they
identified were:

Air or propellant gas discharge preceding the projectile exit

Projectile emergence causing abrupt volumetric displacement of the air mass by the
projectile at the weapon muzzle

Air or propellant discharge (or inflow) following projectile exit

Therefore, the object of effective suppressor design and execution is to moderate all
three elements of noise creation when a firearm is discharged. What a suppressor cannot
contain, however, is the mechanical noise generated by the firearm by its internal mecha¬
nisms such as the hammer, firing pin, recoil spring, and so forth that occur as a result of
the workings that cause the firearm to function. To address this, firearms that are purpose
built with suppression in mind can be engineered to dampen internal noise as much as
possible. Another confounding variable that somewhat contradicts the stealth afforded by
a suppressor is the inability to control the noise generated by ejection of cartridge casings.
Such a device was patented in 2005 by Thomas Sauer under U.S. Patent 6,836,991 B1 (Sauer
2005), which specifically addressed noise, among other issues, generated by the ejection
of spent cartridge casings. Another source of noise, spent casings hitting the floor after
impact, have been addressed by less technical means—the attachment of a brass-catching
container, such as a bag, to the ejection port.

Suppressors are mated to the host firearm by two methods: detachable suppressors
and integral suppressors. A detachable suppressor is designed to be installed and removed
at the whim of the operator. Attachment is typically accomplished by screwing the sup¬
pressor onto a threaded barrel, attaching it to locking lugs at the muzzle end, or joining it
to an adapter attached to the barrel. Threaded attachments are finely threaded to ensure
proper suppressor mounting and alignment to the bore of the host firearm. As a result,
the detachable suppressor is not immediately interchangeable between different models of
firearms because the threaded mounting depends entirely on what thread pattern is used
to mate the suppressor to the host firearm. Many detachable suppressors have interchange¬
able threaded end caps that make it possible to mate the suppressor to a different host, per¬
haps even a host firearm that is a smaller caliber than the identified caliber the suppressor
was designed to support. Alternatives to threaded barrels have included locking collars,

208

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.21 A High Standard H-D Military .22 pistol with integral suppressor. This is not a
period piece; it was manufactured to resemble the classic H-D as it would have appeared for
OSS or CIA use. (Image from author's collection.)

affixing the suppressor by the host’s bayonet lug (in military rifles), and “quick detach”
type setups that have become more commonplace in recent years, particularly in military
applications. Quick-detach suppressors use coarser threading and generally fit over the
muzzle of the weapon, if not attached to a dedicated flash hider or muzzle brake, and may
include a secondary locking mechanism to secure the suppressor to the muzzle. Friction
lock type linkages are not usually found on professionally manufactured suppressors, but
quite often are used in homemade, clandestine suppressors as a matter of manufacturing
expediency and simplicity.

An integral suppressor is one that is built into the weapon and integrated as part of
the barrel. Integrally suppressed firearms have the appearance of an oversized barrel as the
suppressor adds to the overall diameter of the barrel when compared to a nonsuppressed
model of the same firearm. This should not be confused with firearms that have heavier
match, target, or “bull” barrels that are deliberately oversized to enhance accuracy, such
as the case with the Ruger 10/22 .22 rifle. This particular rifle has long been a popular
platform from which to fabricate a rifle with an integrally suppressed barrel. The Heckler
& Koch MP-5SD is probably the most recognizable and one of the most successful applica¬
tions of the integral suppressor; however, it is not alone—integrally suppressed firearms
can be found dating back to World War II. The British STEN Mark II submachine gun
was modified into the STEN Mark IIS by adding a suppressor that encapsulated the bar¬
rel. Thousands of examples of the Colt Woodsmen and the High Standard H-D, both .22
pistols, were modified for clandestine and special operations by milling down the barrel,
drilling holes or “ports” in the barrel, installing the suppressor body over the barrel, and
securing it by way of a locking or threaded collar that had been installed to the receiver
(see Figure 4.21). A Frankford Arsenal report gives an account of a silenced Ml .30 carbine
(Skochko and Greveris 1968, 47). The report states that the suppressed variant was devel¬
oped in Enfield, England, circa 1945, probably at the behest of the OSS (Office of Strategic
Services, the forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency).

Since standard supersonic ammunition was used in the silenced carbine, seven holes of 0.125
inch diameter were drilled in the barrel close to the breech. This allowed the gases to be bled
off through the holes, with a consequent reduction in ballistic pressure and projectile muzzle
velocity. The original barrel length was also reduced to ten inches, presumably to minimize
the final length of the carbine. The carbine’s silencer surrounds and extends seven inches
beyond the gun barrel. Inside, the silencer has a series of conical baffles, positioned through¬
out its whole length. The overall length and diameter of the silenced barrel are 17 and 1.4 in.,
respectively (Skochko and Greveris 1968)

Firearms

209

Figure 4.22 A functional suppressor manufactured by Southeast Weapons Research. It has
been disassembled into its main components: the housing, recoil booster, and end cap. (Image
from author's collection.)

In spite of the effort and investment made to develop the silenced Ml carbine, the
report suggests that the type was not widely utilized. On the other hand, the integrally sup¬
pressed pistols (the High Standard H-D and the Colt Woodsmen) were apparently better
received and quite effective.

Suppressors, regardless of the nuances of a particular design, can be broken down into
three main components while certain designs call for a fourth component to be present:

1. Body, casing, or housing

2. Internal components or assembly

3. End caps, front and/or back

4. Recoil booster

The use of a linear coupling device, recoil booster, or “Nielson device” is required for
certain firearm designs to permit reliable cycling of the host weapon. This is especially true
on pistols with retracting barrels that move during the recoil sequence of the action, but it
is not an issue on a firearm with a fixed barrel. Such a device is integral to the design and
becomes relevant if the questioned device is disassembled, its presence providing technical
evidence that a suspected device was at least intended by design to act as a suppressor and
the designer took into account the possibility that too much gas pressure may be lost and
an insufficient amount would remain to cycle the host firearm. A recoil booster typically
takes on the form of a spring-loaded piston; however, variations in design could be fabri¬
cated, although functionally such a design would be equivalent (see Figure 4.22).

The internals of a suppressor vary greatly, dependent entirely upon the best thoughts
and engineering of the designer. Numerous approaches to suppression have been stud¬
ied and built. One approach is the use of internal “wipes,” which are simply lightweight
materials that allow a projectile to perforate them as it passes from the muzzle of the host,
traveling through the suppressor body, and out into open air. The material used in wipes
includes rubber stoppers, steel wool, acoustical foams, polyurethane bushings, and metal
mesh. The drawback of such a design is that the wipes tend to wear out rather quickly and
must be routinely replaced to ensure continued performance of the suppressor.

The simplest suppressor is a container that acts as a gas trap and does not use baffles,
wipes, or chambering. The entire suppressor acts as the chamber. Such a suppressor maybe
integral or attachable to the host. The suppressor container, or body, could be filled with an
aggregate filler such as metal shoelace eyelets, common fiberglass insulation, or expanding
foam sealant to act as an absorbing medium. This form of suppressor may or may not con¬
tain a bore that is tapped to bleed off gas. The installation of a bore within the suppressor

210

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

body certainly would be of benefit to ensure proper bore and suppressor alignment; how¬
ever, it may not be absolutely required by the particular design that has been undertaken.

A third suppressor design uses internal baffles. In such a design, a plurality of baffles
is employed that run the length of the suppressor. There may be the installation of some
type of filler material between the baffles in the “baffle stack.” In its simplest form, baffles
could be metal washers stacked on top of one another within the suppressor body. Baffles
of various shapes and sizes exist, again completely dependent on the designer. Baffles can
be conical, shaped like the letter K (the K baffle), have a helical appearance, etc. The com¬
mon characteristic of suppressor baffles is the presence of a hole that allows a projectile to
pass, usually through the center. A notable exception would be a suppressor that is offset
from the bore, meaning that part of the suppressor body sits beneath the barrel so as not to
obstruct the sights of the host gun.

Yet another design approach is suppression by chambering, either independently or
in concert with either baffles or internal fillers or wipes. Such designs rely on an intri¬
cately tuned interior that muffles the noise energy by dissipating it through a plurality of
chambers. Often, acoustical chambering is used in conjunction with filler elements, either
baffles or acoustically absorbent materials. In such a design, the bore is tapped to provide
escape ports for the gases as they pass through the suppressor, expanding and dissipating
the energy.

Suppressors can be defined as one- or two-stage designs. Two-stage suppressors have
a large and small diameter sleeve or body. The large-diameter portion of the suppressor
is closest the muzzle, and acts as an expansion chamber. The suppressor body then tapers
down into the smaller diameter, which contains the wipes, baffles, or acoustical chamber¬
ing and materials, depending on the approach of the designer. A two-stage suppressor
simply confers an advantage of enhanced interior volume to permit the suppressor to work
more effectively. The Bell Laboratories suppressor originally developed for the suppressed
M3 Grease Gun was a two-stage design and was connected by means of a bushing. “The
rear sleeve encloses a roll of wire mesh which surrounds the drilled gun barrel; the forward
sleeve, which extends beyond the gun barrel muzzle, contains a stack of wire mesh discs”
(Skochko and Greveris 1968). This suppressor was very large physically, extending beyond
the normal barrel length of the M3, and was further enhanced by gas bleed holes being
drilled in the gun barrel. A two-stage suppressor, the Sionics, was designed for Gordon
Ingram’s MAC-10, which not only abated the noise created during firing but also made
the MAC (Military Armaments Corp.) a lot easier to shoot. A Nomex"' cover was standard
equipment for the suppressor to allow the shooter to hold onto it with the nonshooting
hand, serving the secondary purpose of a handle to control muzzle climb. Although built
for the MAC, other hosts have been threaded to accept the Sionics suppressor.

Building a suppressor is not an exceptionally complex task, as evidenced by the fact that
untold dozens of homemade examples are seized by law enforcement annually. If someone
wants to see how to build a suppressor, the complete details are as close as a filed patent,
found via online sources, or in the copious printed matter that discusses the construction
of suppressors. Patent information is especially useful, providing the prospective builder
with detailed information on suppressor design. A suppressor need not be a purpose-built
device; a suppressor can be fashioned from sundry objects. Common one- and two-liter
plastic beverage bottles have been used as expedient, single-use suppressors. SWD, one
of the companies that manufactured MAC pistols and submachine guns, manufactured
a threaded adapter that permitted the attachment of a two-liter plastic soda bottle to a

Firearms

211

firearm. This approach may have been more novelty than functional, but the adapter itself
is legally considered a suppressor. Lawn-mower and power-equipment mufflers have also
been used. Quite literally, anything that is portable that is used to abate the report of gun¬
fire becomes a suppressor by definition—even such seemingly benign objects as pillows,
vegetables, or a wad of polyester batting.

Haag (1973) reported that a .22 rifle (a precise description of the host firearm was not
given) had a suppressor that was attached by way of a “snug, friction fit” and contained
“inner and outer tubes to be packed with glass wool.” Images in the original journal article
suggest that the inner tube contained a baffle stack as well. A suppressor constructed of
basic hardware store materials was reported by Emanuel (1982). The host weapon was a
Charter Arms AR-7. Attachment was by means of a threaded collar that capped the bar¬
rel, which had been modified by removing the front sight and the drilling of four holes.
The suppressor itself was constructed of “two chrome plated sink drain pipes 9/16 inches
in diameter.... The outer pipe was filled with steel wool; the inner pipe contained alter¬
nating pieces of cut plastic and a fibrous material.” The ART rifle, developed at Armalite
by Eugene Stoner, who also developed the AR-15 (later M16), is an ideal host firearm by
virtue of its design. The AR-7 was conceived as a survival gun and fits into its own butt
stock when disassembled. All the parts of the rifle—the barrel, magazine, and receiver—
are withdrawn from the stock, which is weatherproof, and fitted together. The barrel is
mated to the receiver by a muzzle nut. The barrel is aligned by way of a small reference
pin on the barrel, and the nut is screwed onto the threaded portion to secure the barrel.
This subtle design cue is also found on the AR-15/M16, where a barrel-alignment guide is
also found. The AR-7 is chambered in .22 Long Rifle, a relatively easy caliber to suppress,
regardless of the particulars of how the suppressor will be constructed and what materials
will be used. This fact, coupled with the threaded barrel attachment and a removable bar¬
rel, only enhances the potential. With the barrel removed, it is very easy to alter the barrel
to conform to the needs of the builder.

Not all suppressors can be disassembled. In the case of a sealed unit, the suppres¬
sor would have to be cleaned by immersion in solvent and allowed to soak or placed
into an ultrasonic cleaner. Many are designed to allow at least partial disassembly to
facilitate some measure of cleaning. At least one end cap is threaded to the suppressor
body and is removable, permitting internal components to be removed and cleaned. If
the suppressor uses baffles, then the entire baffle stack could be removed and cleaned,
as well as the interior of the suppressor body. Other suppressors may only allow for the
linear coupling device to be removed, in which case the entire suppressor would have to
be submerged in a suitable cleaning solvent. Commercial parts washers and ultrasonic
cleaners work well for the can that cannot be taken apart. Suppressors in .22 are espe¬
cially susceptible to buildup, as the priming and powder formulations for .22 cartridges
tend to be very dirty.

Suppressors can be constructed of any number of metals or other materials. Aluminum
has the benefit of corrosion resistance, high strength, and light weight. Weight is of special
concern, as a heavy suppressor would make the weapon front heavy and affect the bal¬
ance felt by the operator. Aluminum is joined by other materials such as stainless steel,
ordnance-grade steel, titanium, Inconel alloys, ceramics, and even carbon fiber. Some sup¬
pressors incorporate several different materials, using aluminum for the body but other
materials for the internal components. In the absence of these materials, the homemade
suppressor can be constructed of PVC pipe or any tubular metal stock obtained at the

212

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

local hardware store or a specialty supply shop that provides metalworking and industrial
operations.

Commercial suppressors may be optimized to be fired either wet or dry, as specified by
the manufacturer. Wet suppressors require the addition of some liquid to work optimally.
The liquid can be water, saliva, or a commercial product designed for such application. As the
weapon is fired, the liquid charge is gradually used up, such that the peak effectiveness will
be reduced, requiring the suppressor to be refilled. A water charge in a wet suppressor can be
expected to last several dozen rounds before needing replenishment; however, the operator
will begin to notice a reduction in the effectiveness of the wet suppressor as the liquid charge
is used up. A side effect of the wet suppressor is the tremendous blowback of the liquid back
into the host firearm; thus it is recommended that host firearms be thoroughly dried and
cleaned promptly after the shooting session. Dry suppressors do not require a liquid charge
to work at peak efficiency; in fact, inserting liquid in such suppressors may be discouraged.

The effectiveness of a suppressor is measured by the sound reduction measured in deci¬
bels. The relative effectiveness or noise-abatement quality of a particular suppressor can be
subject to much debate and is as much in the opinion of the observer as is in any testing
that is intended to follow an objective, scientific approach. In cases where the suppressor is
used in conjunction with a firearm chambered in a cartridge whose performance exceeds
the speed of sound, the suppressor design may be adapted to reduce the energy enough to
slow the projectile to subsonic speeds. Numerous manufacturers produce subsonic loads of
cartridges that exceed the speed of sound, such as .22, 9x19mm, and 5.7x28mm. Sound trav¬
els at approximately 1,180 feet per second at 68°F (20°C) in the open air. Thus, calibers that
are expected to exceed this velocity will generate a sonic boom, thereby reducing the effec¬
tiveness of the suppressor to some degree. The use of subsonic ammunition eliminates such
concerns. This acoustical hurdle is not a factor for cartridges with velocities at subsonic levels.

The legality of private possession of suppressors varies greatly. In the United States, the
suppressor is defined as a firearm, although the suppressor in and of itself is not capable
of expelling a projectile and is not designed as such. In the United States, the manufac¬
ture, possession, and transfer of suppressors fall under the purview of the 1934 National
Firearms Act. Individual suppressor components may also be defined as suppressors, even
if unassembled and not accompanied by the balance of components to complete the fabri¬
cation of a suppressor. It was a common practice to sell suppressor kits in the United States
until suppressor components were classified as suppressors themselves. A suppressor kit
could be the housing or body, minus internal components, or it could be the components
such as baffles, but absent the body.

Efforts have been made to suppress all varieties of firearms, although suppressors tend
to be associated most closely with pistols. This is perhaps mainly due to the appearance
and application of suppressors in popular television and movie productions. Suppression
of firearms where the ammunition is contained within a sealed chamber obviously over¬
comes the concern of the potential for noise escaping from the chamber and thus reduc¬
ing or defeating the efforts of a sound suppressor, which lends the primary application of
suppressors to firearms other than revolver types. There have been attempts to suppress
revolvers, but such attempts have always seemed to be dismissed as foolishness, due to
the inherent characteristics of the revolver design that allows the escape of noise from
the chambers in the cylinder. As mentioned previously, there is a small gap between the
cylinder and the forcing cone of the barrel, permitting the escape of gases and thus noise.
Bearing this in mind, certain revolver designs eliminate this small gap as much as possible

Firearms

213

and suggest that some degree of successful suppression maybe possible. Such an apparatus
was invented in 1973. The host weapon was a Dan Wesson Model 12 revolver with a sup¬
pressor attached. “The silencer was mounted by removing the barrel nut from the revolver
and screwing the silencer in its place” (Morris 1973). In the case of a Dan Wesson revolver,
it is possible to adjust the gas seal between the front face of the cylinder at the point where
it meets the barrel, which would appear to be one reason for using a Dan Wesson to the
exclusion of other brands; the other would be the ease of attachment to the host.

Inert, replica copies of suppressors are manufactured and overtly resemble functional
suppressors. The same companies that build functional suppressors often build these inert
replicas and market them as faux suppressors, fake cans, barrel safety extensions, and train¬
ing devices. Regardless of the name, these items are clearly identified as inert, replica, or
fake to avoid confusing them with functional suppressors. They are not properly referred to
as “nonfunctional” devices because of the implication that the object in question was once
functional or could be restored or made to function. Some examples of inert suppressor
analogs are solid, having no bore and only the overt appearance of a suppressor and means
of attachment to the host weapon, whereas other examples are “shoot through,” meaning
that they have a bore and can be mounted onto a host firearm that can be fired with the
replica in place. Inert copies should not have the ability to be disassembled. Inspection of
the end caps should reveal firm and intact welds or other permanent sealing that prevents
disassembly. Furthermore, in a shoot-through type, a visual inspection by looking down
the bore should reveal a smooth bore that is absent any holes or other indicia that suggest
that gases resulting from a gunshot could be diverted into the body of the apparatus, as
opposed to passing straight through (see Figure 4.23).

In one example the author is familiar with, a commercially available barrel extension
that was factory threaded to mate with the host firearm was substantially modified to act
as a suppressor. A portion of the barrel extension body was milled away, leaving a circular,
winding appearance. Ports were then drilled through the bore of the barrel extension,
and the device was then covered with an expandable heavy plastic material consistent in
appearance with that used to form nonslip tool handles. When test fired, the apparatus
held together but was, speaking generously, very marginally effective at abating the noise
of a gunshot. The author classified the device as a suppressor, given the apparent attempt
to fabricate a device that would abate the report of a gunshot, even if the net result in noise
suppression was marginal.

Figure 4.23 A replica suppressor manufactured by Sig Sauer. These were sold as an accessory
to the Sig Mosquito .22 pistol with threaded barrel to give the suppressed "look." The suppres¬
sor replica could also be purchased separately. This replica is in no way functional; the body is
solid, but it does have a bore, permitting the host gun to shoot through it. (Image from author's
collection.)

214

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Other barrel attachments may be mistaken for suppressors, including elongated flash
hiders, muzzle compensators, and harmonic stabilizers. Flash hiders and muzzle compen¬
sators are readily recognized by ports or cuts that are designed to divert gases away from
the muzzle instead of allowing all the muzzle gas to exit directly outward from the bore.
The purpose of a harmonic stabilizer is to eliminate barrel fluctuations that result from
gunfire. The harmonic stabilizer may be constructed around the barrel, giving the barrel
a “bull barrel” or appearance of having an integral suppressor. Other harmonic stabilizers
attach at the muzzle, which may again give the appearance of a detachable suppressor. A
definitive determination may not be possible without disassembly or x-ray of the apparatus.

There are several key points to keep in mind when conducting searches or investiga¬
tions where suspected suppressors or components could be encountered:

Any object that could be used as part of a suppressor, even in absence of other parts,
such as a tube, baffles, or a combination of bits and pieces that could possibly be
made to fashion into a suppressor. In such a situation, the surveyor must be able to
recognize objects that are particularly suited for suppressor construction.

Apparatus, modifications, or means of attachment of a device or combination of parts
to a firearm. This can be coupled with modifications to a firearm in an attempt to
act as a host to an internal or attachable suppressor.

Modifications made to inert suppressor copies or barrel extensions indicating an
effort to remanufacture the product into a suppressor. Such indication may include
drilling or cutting into the object or attempts to reseal it by welds or solder.

Plans, schematics, or instruction sheets that address how to construct a suppressor.
These may take the form of blueprints, mechanical drawings, or materials down¬
loaded and printed from online sources.

The presence of firearms with factory-threaded barrel attachments, such as flash hid¬
ers, that are or have been removed. This would include aftermarket threaded bar¬
rels, firearms with factory-threaded barrels, or barrels that have been threaded in
the workshop. In such cases, this permits a ready host firearm that the constructor
can use as a basis to resolve the problem of coupling a suppressor to the host.

Leftover or discarded materials, including aborted construction projects that could
have been attempts at previous suppressor manufacture.

Many currently manufactured firearms come equipped from the factory with a threaded
barrel. Factory-threaded barrels were once considered taboo, but this is no longer the case.
The various and sundry copies of the MAC series of firearms have always come with threaded
barrels. The Intratec TEC line of handguns (TEC-9, TEC-DC9, TEC-9 mini as well as the
TEC-22) were furnished with threaded barrels until the feature was removed in response to
legislation targeting the pistols. Heckler & Koch produces an entire line of suppressible hand¬
guns in 9x19mm, .40 S&W, and .45 ACP, all equipped with threaded barrels. Their Mark
23 handgun chambered in .45 ACP and designed specifically for SOCOM has come with a
threaded barrel since its first delivery in 1996; however, it was discontinued in late 2010. SIG-
Sauer offers many handguns with threaded barrels, including the P220 Combat chambered
in .45 ACP; the P226 Elite chambered in 9x19mm, .40 S&W, and .357 SIG; the P229 Elite,
which is available in 9x19mm only with threaded barrel; the P239 Tactical chambered in
9x19mm; and the Mosquito, which is only offered chambered in .22. Beretta offers the Px4
Storm Special Duty chambered in .45 ACP with a threaded barrel. Remington Arms offers

Firearms

215

Figure 4.24 Operators with the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan dem¬
onstrate room-clearing techniques. The operator on the left is firing an H&K UMP-45 subma¬
chine gun with an attached suppressor; the operator to the right fires an integrally suppressed
HStK MP-5SD. (U.S. Air Force image; photographer Staff Sgt. Joseph Swafford.)

numerous suppressor-ready rifles based on their Model 700 bolt-action rifle, their AR-pattern
semiautomatic rifle, and even the Model 597 .22 semiautomatic rifle. Smith & Wesson offers
variants on the M&P pistol line with threaded barrels in every caliber.

The number and variety of firearms that come available with threaded barrels is only
likely to increase. Firearms with attached flash hiders or muzzle attachments that are
installed by threads make readily available hosts by removing the accessory and accessing
the threads at the muzzle. In addition to factory offerings, custom barrel shops offer after-
market, direct-fit barrels for practically all popular pistols that have barrels threaded to
customer specification. Suppressor manufacturers themselves often manufacture muzzle
brakes or flash hiders that are easy to install for adaptation of their product to the host
firearm, especially with rifles. Suppressor-like devices have been manufactured and per¬
manently attached to paintball guns. The BATFE addressed the existence of these devices
and ruled that, as long as the device remained permanently attached to the nonregulated
article (a paintball gun was mentioned specifically), there was no violation of law. When
tested using a firearm, these ported devices were found to be capable of performing as a
suppressor. The ruling further stated that should the device be removed, it would consti¬
tute making of a suppressor (Truscott 2005).

Figure 4.24 shows operators wielding firearms with noise-suppression devices.

Machine Guns

A machine gun is defined in 26 USC § 5845(b) as

any weapon which shoots, is designed to shoot, or can be readily restored to shoot, auto¬
matically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger.
The term shall also include the frame or receiver of any such weapon, any part designed and
intended solely and exclusively, or combination of parts designed and intended, for use in con¬
verting a weapon into a machinegun, and any combination of parts from which a machinegun
can be assembled if such parts are in the possession or under the control of a person.

216

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Machine guns can be operated by recoil, gas action, or a combination of recoil and
gas action. Certain machine guns are not capable of sustained, continuous fire per a single
press of the trigger; instead, their rate of fire is moderated by a “burst” feature, typically
two or three shots per press of the trigger, depending on how the fire control parts are set
up. The purpose of a burst is to retard the cyclic rate of fire of the firearm, allowing the
shooter to fire multiple shots while regulating the rate of fire to a manageable level in an
attempt to deter excessive ammunition consumption and the inherent loss of the target
due to muzzle climb that all machine guns experience during sustained fire. The argument
in support of a mechanically induced modulation of fire by burst circled around the point
that under sustained fire, machine guns, especially those that are handheld, typically can¬
not be held on target by the operator beyond two to five rounds fired. The burst option has
never been universally accepted as the best approach to controlling automatic fire in lieu of
a well-trained trigger finger. As a whole, machine guns fire at a cyclic rate between approxi¬
mately 400 and 1,200 rounds per minute. This cyclic rate may be a theoretical value unless
the firearm is fed with an inexhaustible supply of ammunition (such as with a belt-fed gun).
Otherwise, time is consumed changing magazines, and thus the rate of fire per minute is
greatly reduced. However, the rate of fire can be calculated on the basis of the time interval
over which a given number of rounds are fired.

Machine guns can be purpose-built weapons by a manufacturer. However, many fire¬
arms can be converted into machine guns from semiautomatic firearms. The approach
used varies greatly and requires some measure of understanding of the principle of opera¬
tion that makes that particular firearm function. Some firearms are quite commonly con¬
verted to machine guns due to availability of receivers and parts, simplicity of design, and
myriad other factors such as builder interest, availability of open-source information on
the topic, and individual understanding of the operating principle behind the weapon.
Machine guns can be individual weapons capable of being fired from the shoulder or in
other individual shooting postures, but these can also include crew-served weapons that
require several individuals to effectively maneuver the weapon. In fact, a machine gun can
take the form of a rifle, shotgun, or pistol.

Submachine guns are still machine guns by definition, but they are more specifi¬
cally defined as those firing cartridges traditionally categorized as pistol calibers, such as
9x19mm, .45 ACP, .380 ACP, 7.65 Tokarev, and even .22 caliber. The physical dimensions
of the firearm are largely irrelevant, as the determination is based upon the dimension of
ammunition that is used. There was nothing small or light about the Thompson Model
1927 or the simplified military version, the Ml. However, they are submachine guns by def¬
inition, as they were chambered for the .45 ACP cartridge. The MAC-11, chambered in .380
ACP, offers one of the highest rates of fire of a mechanically operated machine gun, firing
in the range of 1,200 rounds per minute. Other examples of submachine guns include
the M3 Grease Gun, the Israeli UZI, the C.Z. Zastava M61J (often called the Scorpion),
the British STEN gun, the Lancaster, the Sterling, and innumerable other models. The
introduction of the intermediate' cartridge in the later stages of World War II forced a
nuanced definition of the term submachine gun. The 5.56x45mm, although not considered
a full-sized, full-powered rifle cartridge, is not defined as a pistol cartridge either; thus

The intermediate cartridge is larger than the pistol calibers, but is smaller than full-size, full-powered
rifle cartridges such as 7.62x51mm. The first intermediate cartridge was the 7.92x33mm kurz developed
in World War II Germany for the MP-43, the forerunner of the modern military rifle.

Firearms

217

there is some room for dispute over whether the term submachine gun would apply to an
intermediate-caliber full-auto firearm.

The term submachine gun has been supplemented, but not replaced, by a newer term,
personal defense weapon (PDW). Such weapons are designed to give compact fire power to
users who may have a weapon requirement exceeding that provided by handguns, but can¬
not necessarily deploy a full-sized rifle or even a carbine. The development of PDWs was
made with dignitary-protective details, aircrews, and counterterrorist operators in mind.
The term machine pistol is often erroneously applied broadly to submachine guns. The
term was probably first bestowed by German designers who developed machine guns that
fired pistol-caliber cartridges as opposed to full-size rifle cartridges.

The Bergman MP-18 was one of the first practical machine pistols to be deployed.
Designed by Theodor Bergman, versions were chambered in 9x19mm Luger and
7.63x25mm Mauser, both considered preeminent handgun cartridges of the day. The des¬
ignation MP denoted Machine Pistole, a term that would be used for many years to des¬
ignate machine guns firing pistol cartridges—the MP-28, MP-38, and MP-40—and even
into more modern times with such firearms as H&K’s MP-5 and the MP-7. The term has
been applied almost exclusively to German-sourced firearms of this variety.

Figure 4.25 shows a Fabrique Nationale P-90 submachine gun chambered in the FN
5.7x28mm.

Most machine guns are configured to combine the safety switch with the fire selec¬
tor switch. The M16 combines the safety switch with the selector, as do Heckler & Koch
machine guns, Uzis, and others. Another approach is to separate the manual safety switch
from the selector, as is the case with such firearms as the M14, M2 carbine, and Ruger
AC-556. MAC machine guns have a simple two-position safety switch on the right side of
the receiver adjacent the trigger. The sliding switch indicates safe or fire mode. The selector
switch for semiautomatic or fully automatic fire is located on the left side of the frame and
is a two-position rotating lever. The lever itself resembles the one used on the AR-pattern
firearm safety/selector switch. The Beretta Model 38A submachine gun had a rather novel
approach; this particular model has two triggers: one that permits single-shot fire, the other
full-auto fire. This is also true for the 38A derivatives manufactured by Beretta—the Model
38/42 and the Model 5 (see Figure 4.26). Yet another option was a staged trigger, as in the
case of the MG-34 and MG-42. A slight press of the trigger yielded single shots, while

Figure 4.25 The Fabrique Nationale P-90 submachine gun chambered in the FN 5.7x28mm.
The P-90 is a classic bull-pup design. The PS-90 is a commercially available semiautomatic
copy. The PS-90 is fitted with a 16.1-inch barrel, although conversion to the short submachine
gun barrel is not difficult. (Image from author's collection.)

218

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.26 A Beretta Model 1938A submachine gun; observe the two triggers. (Image from
author's collection.)

completely depressing the trigger would result in fully automatic firing. It is important to
note that there are “dummy” or inert-replica selector switches that physically resemble an
actual selector switch; factually, these are props that have no functional value whatsoever.
These articles look the part, but that is it.

Machine guns can be manufactured as such in a factory environment; however, a
machine gun could also be a firearm that has been remanufactured from a semiautomatic
firearm. In the United States, in such an instance where a firearm has been remanufac¬
tured, the name of the firm, including city and state, that performed the work must be
conspicuously marked on the receiver. Abbreviations are acceptable, as long as they are
readily and easily recognized. Commercially manufactured machine guns are not gener¬
ally marked “machine gun” or in any other way to convey that fact, other than recognition
of the selector switch or other unique feature to a particular model that would indicate the
firearm is a machine gun.

Figure 4.27 depicts an M61J submachine gun manufactured by Z.C. Zastava,
Czechoslovakia. Figure 4.28 shows an UZI submachine gun. Figure 4.29 shows a disas¬
sembled Mini-UZI. Figure 4.30 shows the full-auto sear in an UZI.

Gatling guns were the earliest form of rapid-fire weapons. The Gatling gun took its
name from its inventor, Dr. Richard A. Gatling. The Gatling gun is not defined as a machine
gun because only one round is expelled per press of the “trigger” (or crank, as is the case
of the Gatling gun). Gatling’s patent, titled “Improvement in Revolving Battery-Guns” was
issued November 4, 1862. The development of the Gatling gun would not have been pos¬
sible without the refinement of the self-contained cartridge. The Gatling gun was not sup¬
plied ammunition by a belt or magazine like modern arms, but instead via a gravity-fed
reservoir on top of the weapon. Ammunition was dropped into a hopper and channeled
to the breech. The spent casings were then ejected automatically onto the ground from the
barrel they were fired from. A total of six barrels were used, and the firing barrel was at the
12 o’clock position on the receiver body.

Hand-crank apparatuses have been devised to fit onto semiautomatic belt-fed weap¬
ons to simulate full-auto fire without the implications of manufacturing a machine gun.
Turning the crank causes a mechanical “finger” to press the trigger. The faster the crank
is turned, the faster the gun fires. Despite its antiquity, the Gatling gun concept has
remained. The M61 Vulcan cannon is a six-barreled 20mm cannon that has been used
as shipboard armament and has been the standard cannon used on U.S. military aircraft

Firearms

219

Figure 4.27 The M61J is called a machine pistol, but it is still a submachine gun. It was
manufactured by Z.C. Zastava in Czechoslovakia, and is chambered in 7.65mm (.32 ACP). The
semiautomatic pistol version, the VZ-61, does not have the shoulder stock. Note the selector
switch and the folding wire stock on the pictured example. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.28 (See color insert.) The UZI submachine gun. The depicted examples were manu¬
factured as submachine guns by Israeli Military Industries in Israel and are so marked on the
left side of the receiver as UZI SMG. The English-marked selector switch is above the trigger,
depicted in the lower example. Hebrew-marked selectors are also encountered. (Image from
author's collection.)

since the early 1960s. The M134 Mini Gun, originally developed by General Electric
and a derivative of the M61, went into service in the 1960s and remains in front-line
service to date. There are two significant differences between the original Gatling gun
and the modern multibarreled guns. The first is that the modern versions are driven by
an electric motor, hydraulics, or pneumatic systems instead of a hand crank. The sec¬
ond is that the Gatling gun relied on percussion-based ignition, whereas the M61 and

220

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.29 A disassembled Mini-UZI. Note the compensator cuts in the barrel. The receiver
is in the center of the image; this is the gun part. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.30 Close-up image showing the full-auto sear in an UZI; it is located at the back of
the grip assembly. The sear itself is that U-shaped part that has been flipped up to expose it.
(Image from author's collection.)

the M134 use electrically primed ammunition. In October 2011, Colt reintroduced the
Model 1877 Gatling gun. It is a full-size, faithful reproduction of the original Model
1877, chambered in .45-70 Government and is fully functional. It is a rather elegant
looking piece and includes all the requisite accessories and tackle to complete the rig.
Its brass, iron, and wood construction are indicative of gun-making craftsmanship of a
bygone era. It is claimed to have a rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute by hand crank
(Colt’s Manufacturing 2011).

Firearms

221

Figure 4.31 A pen gun chambered in .25 ACP. The barrel is unscrewed from the body to load
and unload. A simple spring-loaded striker system is used to detonate the cartridge. The striker
is pulled back and can be placed in a "cocked but safe" condition by sliding the handle into the
round notches from the channel that the striker travels on. It is well made and a very interest¬
ing design, leaving one to wonder where it originated. (Image from author's collection.)

Improvised Firearms

A device need not be professionally constructed by a manufacturer of firearms to be legally
classified as a firearm. The 1950s saw the rise of improvised firearms that became widely
known as zip guns. Zip guns typically were fashioned from commonly available sundry
materials, using simple hand tools and basic mechanical knowledge. Zip guns were often
the product of high school or vocational/trade school metal shop projects or made at home
in the basement or the garage. Steel pipes, steel bolts, metal-bodied flashlights, pens, tire
pressure gauges, and other similar objects have all been employed in the production of zip
guns (see Figure 4.31). The stereotypical urban zip gun had a barrel fabricated from metal
antennae with internal components donated from mechanical clocks, cap guns, nails, and
even rubber bands. Such devices usually employ a striker-type spring-loaded firing pin
and have a readily accessible breech to load and unload, requiring the use of a locking
mechanism that can be opened and shut, such as a threaded cap. The underlying feature
that can be expected to be common of zip guns is the remanufacturing of an existing non¬
gun manufactured article into the firearm. This is generally preferred over fabricating each
component of the firearm, which can be restricted by access to adequate machine tools,
materials, and the knowledge of how to use them.

Improvised firearms of all types have been the product of cottage industries in for¬
eign countries, particularly during times of conflict, and firearms or components of fire¬
arms were hand fabricated. Such firearms were commonly encountered in places such as
Southeast Asia and, more recently, in the northern territories of Pakistan, throughout
Afghanistan, the Philippine Islands, and throughout Africa. Improvised firearms may
also be fashioned from existing manufactured articles, and may even include compo¬
nents from manufactured firearms, with the balance of components being fabricated
by hand from whatever raw materials are suitable and available. Improvised firearms
quite often are crude in appearance and construction, and generally are simple in the
extreme in design and execution. On the other hand, such devices may be elaborately
constructed and so closely resemble a factory-produced article that proper identification
may be difficult.

222

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Improvised firearms may take on the form of mundane objects that are not ordinar¬
ily identified or considered potential firearms, such as umbrellas, cameras, walking canes,
heavy gloves, flashlights, cigarette lighters, cellular phones, smoking pipes, belt buckles,
and briefcases. These items can be equipped to conceal and remotely fire a stored fire¬
arm. These improvised weapons may have, in fact, been professionally manufactured as
clandestine firearms dedicated as part of a covert operative’s kit. As such, identification
of them remains somewhat elusive, except that the standard of manufacture is quite high
in comparison to homemade improvised firearms. It is unusual, although not unheard of,
for such improvised or clandestine weapons to appear, and it may be very difficult, if not
impossible, to trace them back to the original source, as such articles are ordinarily devoid
of serial numbers or other manufacturing marks that would indicate their origin. Legally
speaking, improvised weapons frequently can be classified as “Any Other Weapons” due to
the presented characteristics of the article.

Any Other Weapons

In the United States, a firearm may be classified in the “Any Other Weapons” category as
defined by 26 USC § 5845 (e) as follows:

any weapon or device capable of being concealed on the person from which a shot can be
discharged through the energy of an explosive, a pistol or revolver having a barrel with a
smooth bore designed or redesigned to fire a fixed shotgun shell, weapons with combination
shotgun and rifle barrels 12 inches or more, less than 18 inches in length, from which only a
single discharge can be made from either barrel without manual reloading, and shall include
any such weapon which may be readily restored to fire. Such term shall not include a pistol or
a revolver having a rifled bore, or rifled bores, or weapons designed, made, or intended to be
fired from the shoulder and not capable of firing fixed ammunition.

Other examples of Any Other Weapons include firearms not readily recognized as
firearms and generally called improvised firearms, as previously described in this text,
such as flashlight guns, suitcase guns, cane guns, umbrella guns, and the like. Handguns
with a vertical fore grip attached were deemed to be in the Any Other Weapons category by
ATF directive (BATFE 2006a). Like machine guns, sound suppressors, destructive devices,
short-barreled rifles, and shotguns, Any Other Weapons fall under the purview of the
National Firearms Act of 1934. For lawful possession in the United States, the provisions
of the National Firearms Act must be satisfied, with the device being lawfully registered
and excise tax paid.

As is the case with most firearms, there are some designs that closely resemble an Any
Other Weapon, but they do not meet the requisite characteristics. The American Derringer
Corporation manufactured a firearm that was a facsimile of an Any Other Weapon, but
it did not qualify as such due to its particular design characteristics. The Stinger Model 2
was chambered in .25 ACP and was constructed to resemble a pen; however, it was hinged
to create a short “grip” at an angle to the bore, and it was designed not to fire until the grip
was moved to be angled to the bore. In addition to the short “stock” that was created by the
hinged portion of the device, the bore was rifled. With these two factors in mind, it is not
an Any Other Weapon, but a pistol.

There are other examples of similar pistols manufactured by Stinger. Ironically, car¬
bine versions of the pen pistol were marketed. Using the classification of a smooth-bore

Firearms

223

handgun as an Any Other Weapon, a shotgun-type receiver originally manufactured
with a short stock or pistol grip at an angle to the bore, but not a traditional shoul¬
der stock, is classified as an Any Other Weapon. The key elements in this particular
instance rely on the facts that the original manufacturer could legally manufacture an
Any Other Weapon and that the receiver was identified as such, and bore the necessary
characteristics in its configuration to qualify (short grip at an angle to the bore and
smooth bore).

Another similar example is a knife gun manufactured by Powell and Brown Industries,
also known as Powell Knife Pistol, Inc. (PKP). The overt appearance of the firearm is that
of a fixed-blade hunting-style knife or bayonet. Three appendages—the trigger, hammer,
and a push bar to open the action—may go unnoticed by casual observation, but they are
present and would be recognized as irregular for typical knife construction, even if the
firearm portion was not readily recognized. The knife gun is a single-shot, breech-loaded
affair and has been reported in calibers .22, .38, and .45. The barrel is above the blade, and
the action opens on a hinge. A rudimentary notch-style rear sight is present on the hilt.
The company obtained their license to manufacture in the mid-1980s; however, prototypes
are certain to have existed before that. The firearm is marked on the left side with caliber,
manufacturer, and serial number. The Powell Knife Gun is defined as a pistol, not an Any
Other Weapon, by virtue of its short grip at an angle to the bore and the rifled bore.

In addition to such improvised firearms, starter guns and flare guns (also called Very
Pistols) have been remanufactured or reconfigured into firearms. Flare guns can be used
to expel fixed ammunition cartridges by using a subcaliber insert. An insert allows for a
cartridge that is smaller than the bore or chamber of the host device. The insert simply fills
the gap and aligns the firing pin with the rim or primer. An insert can be of any caliber, but
primarily centers on handgun cartridges and shot shells. Most modern flare guns are made
of plastic and will not handle the pressure created by expulsion of shot shells or even hand¬
gun-caliber cartridges from them. BATFE issued an open letter dated May 4, 2006, con¬
cerning the use of such inserts in a flare gun. The letter reported the results of experiments
conducted by the BATFE Firearms Technology Branch into the use of inserts in flare guns
or the firing of ammunition from a flare gun without an insert. Common modern flare
guns have bores measuring 25mm, 37mm, or 12 gauge. The experiments concluded that
the flare guns were destroyed in the test-fire procedure after a single shot. Furthermore, the
letter reemphasized the legalities of using a flare gun as a firearm (BATFE 2006b).

Antique Firearms

An antique firearm is classified under 18 U.S.C. § 921(a) (16) as follows:

(A) any firearm (including any firearm with a matchlock, flintlock, percussion cap, or similar
type of ignition system) manufactured in or before 1898; or (B) any replica of any firearm
described in subparagraph (A) if such replica—(i) is not designed or redesigned for using rim
fire or conventional center fire fixed ammunition, or (ii) uses rim fire or conventional center
fire fixed ammunition which is no longer manufactured in the United States and which is not
readily available in the ordinary channels of commercial trade; or (C) any muzzle loading
rifle, muzzle loading shotgun, or muzzle loading pistol, which is designed to use black powder,
or a black powder substitute, and which cannot use fixed ammunition. For purposes of this
subparagraph, the term “antique firearm” shall not include any weapon which incorporates

224

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

a firearm frame or receiver, any firearm which is converted into a muzzle loading weapon,
or any muzzle loading weapon which can be readily converted to fire fixed ammunition by
replacing the barrel, bolt, breechblock, or any combination thereof.

When defining a firearm as an antique, there may be instances where state law may
contradict U.S. Code with respect to the particulars of what constitutes an antique fire¬
arm. The question must be examined based upon the venue where the judicial controversy
is being heard. Obviously, federal laws are not applied outside the federal system, so if
the controversy is confined within the jurisdiction of state-level officials, the status of an
antique as defined by relevant state law would be observed. The status of a firearm as an
antique presents certain legal questions that vary from venue to venue, especially if the
question surrounds a person who would otherwise be prohibited from possessing a fire¬
arm but who is in possession of an antique firearm. Many venues permit an antique to be
reclassified as a firearm and deprive it of antique status should the antique be used in the
commission of a crime.

Air Guns

Guns that operate using a form of compressed gas have existed since at least the late 1500s.
Criminal use of an air gun was central to the plot in the Sherlock Holmes mystery The Empty
House, published in 1903 but set in the last years of the nineteenth century. The esteemed
Colonel Sebastian Moran attempted to murder Mr. Holmes using an air gun with which
Moran had already murdered the Honourable Ronald Adair. An aside in the story is that
Holmes’s companion, Dr. John Watson, erroneously identified the recovered projectile from
the Adair crime scene first as a soft-nose revolver bullet and later in the story as an expanded
revolver bullet. Watson is perplexed by the evidence at the murder scene: no one reported
hearing any noise; Adair was alone at the time; and there was a large sum of money still in
the room where the body was found. As the story draws to a conclusion, the air gun is recov¬
ered at the scene of Moran’s arrest, an empty house across the street from 221B Baker Street,
where Holmes resided. Moran was witnessed shooting a wax bust of Holmes strategically
positioned in the window of his apartment and was hastily taken into custody by Scotland
Yard detectives who were hiding in the vacant house. Holmes was quick in recognizing the
weapon, saying that “I knew Von Herder, the blind German mechanic, who constructed it
to the order of the late Professor Moriarty” (Doyle 1903/1992).

Air guns are popular around the world in venues where there are significant prohibi¬
tions against the possession of conventional arms, but this statement is equally true for places
where firearm restrictions are more relaxed. The most modern trend in air-operated guns has
been to replicate historical and contemporary military firearms, which has only contributed
to broadening the interest in air guns and to advancing the state of the art. Air guns have
become popular with youths in North America; however, air guns can be and are used for
hunting and match competitions, including pistol and rifle matches at the Olympics.

The power of an air gun should not be underestimated; injuries can and do occur
when persons are shot with even low-powered devices. Despite popular perceptions that
look upon air guns as toys, many would be surprised to hear that air guns are used for
hunting and have appeared in military applications. An oft-cited example of a military
application of an air gun is the Austrian Girardoni, which entered service around 1780.

Firearms

225

This air gun had a capacity of 22 rounds and an interchangeable self-contained reservoir
to supply the compressed air. The reservoir stored enough air to permit several hundred
shots, a considerable advantage in an era when muzzle-loaded muskets were the norm.
American explorers Lewis and Clark carried a Girardoni-pattern air rifle with them on
their famous expedition. That particular air rifle was apparently in caliber .462 (National
Rifle Association n.d.).

The term air gun is a generic one, encompassing a plurality of different designs and
principles of operation; they are truly a study all unto themselves outside the realm of fire¬
arms that use energetic materials to expel projectiles. Air guns may also be referred to as
airsoft guns, the two terms are interchangeable. Air guns run the gambit from very inex¬
pensive dime-store varieties of plastic construction to very precise and complex instru¬
ments fabricated of high-quality materials, made to the highest standard, and priced well
in excess of comparable firearms. The brands Daisy, Crosman, and Tipman are the names
most synonymous with the American air-gun industry. These names are joined by other
distinguished firms such as Hammereli, Anschutz, Walther, and Benelli. Numerous fire¬
arm manufacturers license or permit air-gun makers to produce highly accurate, practi¬
cally indistinguishable reproductions of their respective products.

Air guns have been broken into two broad classifications based upon the projectile
they are chambered for: the BB gun and the pellet gun. Both pistol and rifle configurations
are made that use one or the other. Air guns maybe single-shot, chamber-loaded designs,
but certain BB guns can be preloaded with a good quantity of BBs that are poured into the
magazine. Certain pellet guns are fed through a rotary magazine, much like a revolver.
Classically, the BB was a .17774.55mm diameter ball constructed of steel that was coated
with copper nickel, or less commonly, bare nickel. The common .177" pellet is a diabolo
design, with a head that tapers to a waist that in turn widens to the hollowed tail or base.
There is a great variety of head designs manufactured, with the most common “drugstore”
variety having a flat nose. Traditionally made of lead, the material selection for pellets var¬
ies, including types made of lead in combination with polymer. There is an amazing array
of pellets available for any air-gun application, and they range in caliber from the basic
.177" upwards to .50" projectiles weighing some 200 grains, a projectile comparable to
those used in self-contained cartridges!

The requisite air or gas can be introduced into the air gun by a number of methods
and is design specific. Air guns can be supplied the compressed gas for function either by
mechanical charging to fill an onboard reservoir or by using compressed-gas cartridges.
Mechanically charged air guns use a lever, crank, pump, or other apparatus to introduce
air into a cylinder; the air is then released when the trigger is pressed. This expels the air
from the piston, and the pump must be worked again. Other designs employ a refillable
tank that is charged by an external air compressor or pump. Especially prevalent in entry-
level guns are designs that use disposable C0 2 cartridges. Disposable cartridges are loaded
and then locked into place with a bracket, which also contains the nozzle that pierces the
top of the cartridge and releases the gas, thereby charging the system. Such systems are
not well sealed and do not hold a charge very long, and the cartridge will have to be soon
replaced if not exhausted by firing the air gun. Within any given design there is a plurality
of variations of how a particular air gun operates.

The paintball gun is a purpose-built device intended to expel small paint-filled spheres.
Like all air guns, paint guns operate using a compressed gas. Paint-ball guns are equipped
with the refillable air tank. As a matter of safety, the velocity that the paintball gun expels

226

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

the paint ball should be metered before put into use. Paintballs traveling at velocities in
excess of 300 feet per second are generally considered unsafe and may result in unreli¬
ability of the paint-ball gun, as the paint ball itself may shatter in the bore because of the
excessive pressure. The first paint-ball guns bore little resemblance to actual firearms, but
they have evolved in appearance to more closely resemble actual firearms. Paint-ball com¬
petition has become a popular sport and has expanded around the globe.

The Automatic Electric Air Gun (or AEG for short) is air-gun technology taken to a
new dimension. The standard projectile for the AEG is the 6mm-diameter ball-shaped pel¬
let fabricated of plastic. Pellets of different densities are available, allowing the AEG to have
an increased range and greater accuracy. The AEG is different from other air guns in that
the AEG uses a battery-powered electric motor that compresses and releases a piston to
create the air charge to propel the pellet. Many designs also feature an electrically operated
magazine to increase the rate of fire of the AEG. The movement in the AEG community
has been directed toward mimicking all varieties and vintages of firearms, ranging from
all brand names of handguns to rifles, submachine guns, and squad automatic weapons.
This is a logical pursuit, given the fact that many firearms that are copied as an AEG are
barred from lawful ownership. Many AEG analogs are well-built, convincing devices that
use metal, plastic, and real wood to construct the parts and equal the weight of the real
counterparts. In fact, many real-world accessories designed for firearms will interface with
the AEG analog. It would be very easy to be deceived by the appearance of an AEG and
mistake it for a real firearm were it not for the requisite blaze-orange muzzle cap to indicate
that it is not a real firearm. However, this is easily removed by the end user if the apparent
intent is to mask the device’s identity as an AEG.

The AEG can attain an extremely high rate of fire, with some examples achieving
cyclic rates in the area of 900-1,200 pellets per minute. At close range, an AEG is capable
of cutting holes through drywall and shredding aluminum cans. For recreational pur¬
poses, most AEGs are used in the same manner as paintball guns: conducting simulated
war games, historical reenactments, and general plinking. The AEG has also found pro¬
fessional uses, often being used for training purposes; these devices are comparable to
using simulated munitions. The accuracy of controls, weight, and feel make them ideal for
professional training environments. The added safety margin is that an AEG is not config¬
ured to accept standard ammunition, eliminating the risk of using firearms or dedicated
simulation firearms and confusing training ammunition for lethal-application cartridges.
Using proper safety equipment, the risk of personal injury from the pellets fired from an
AEG is said to be minimal.

Air guns and the like are not legally considered firearms; they do not meet the requisite
definition of a firearm, that is, being capable of expelling a projectile, or readily restored to
such a state, under the force of an explosive. Air guns themselves may be subject to other
regulations outside the scope of laws that address firearms, most notably concerning age
restrictions for purchase.

Air guns are often represented as a firearm by persons who otherwise cannot obtain a
firearm to facilitate the commission of crimes such as armed robbery or assault. There have
been numerous unfortunate tragedies where a person possessing an air gun has been mis¬
taken as being armed with an actual firearm, resulting in injuries and deaths. Quite often,
the examiner is brought in to testify that the air gun used in the commission of a crime
mimics that of an actual firearm, particularly if the legally mandated blaze-orange safety
cap has been removed or painted over to conceal that fact that the article is a nongun. Such

Firearms

227

a case is at least as much based upon the facts obtained in the scope of the broader investi¬
gation as the opinion of the examiner.

The examiner may be called to opine as to the physical similarities between the air
gun and an actual firearm, as well has how the air gun operates and what range the
air gun may have if it were discharged. Another common question within the use of
an airsoft gun is whether it can be classified as a “dangerous weapon” for the purposes
of forming the basis to charge as a felony or misdemeanor crime. The possibility that
serious, permanent injury or death can result from being struck with a BB or pellet
expelled from an air gun maybe very slight under the narrowest of circumstances; how¬
ever, it cannot necessarily be dismissed as impossible. The Consumer Products Safety
Commission issued a safety alert stating that the commission “has reports of about
four deaths per year caused by BB guns and pellet rifles” (Consumer Products Safety
Commission 2010), and particularly warns of BB guns that propel a BB or pellet at veloc¬
ities exceeding 350 feet per second. The technical nuances of whether an airsoft gun is a
dangerous weapon based upon medical datum and technical information is tempered by
case law that may have set the predicate in that specific legal venue. In general, air-gun
classifications should be treated as any other firearms case. It must be presumed that,
unless there is testimony on record, whether the article is (or is not) deemed to be a dan¬
gerous weapon will factor into how that case will be prosecuted and what the expected
outcome will be.

Ammunition-Feeding Devices

The terms magazine and clip are often said to represent the same object, and the terms are
often incorrectly interchanged. Much of this confusion seems to originate from popular
culture in the form of music, movies, and television, where the firearm magazine is simply
referred to as the clip, lending the impression that the two terms are interchangeable, when
in reality they are not. The common denominator between the two is that they provide
a source of ammunition for a firearm. Magazines are inserted into firearms and supply
the firearm with ammunition to the extent of its capacity. A clip may be inserted or used
to load cartridges into the internal magazine of a firearm or one that is detachable. Clips
generally are intended for single use and can then be discarded. Certain styles of clips are
reusable and are often sought by collectors as valuable accoutrements for the firearm they
pair up with.

Magazines

There are several different types of magazines. The most common is the detachable type,
which may be identified as a box-type magazine because of the physical appearance of the
magazine resembling a box. Not all magazines share the same basic shape for functional
and aesthetic purposes. Another colloquial term to describe a magazine is banana clip, a ref¬
erence to the curvature inherent to the design of certain magazines and its resemblance to a
banana. Once again, the use of the term clip in this context would be a catachresis. The par¬
ticular shape of an individual magazine is subject to various engineering and design issues,
but also is in proportion to the total ammunition capacity. Most detachable magazines are
rectangular in shape, and either angled or straight bottoms or floors can be expected.

228

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

For the most part, magazines are not interchangeable between different models and
manufacturers of firearms, although there are exceptions to this. The pattern magazine
used in the AR-15/M16 family of rifles is sometimes called the STANAG 4179 pattern.*
Contrary to common belief, there is simply no standard NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) magazine in the true sense of the word but, rather, an acceptance that a
particular style of magazine manufactured to a certain specification is acceptable for
use within the NATO partners. The STANAG 4179-pattern magazine is shared not only
with the AR-15/M16 rifles, but is also used by the FN SCAR 16 and 16S, the British SA-80
(L85A1), the FN FNC (chambered in 5.56x45mm), FN FS2000, SIG 556, Kel Tec PLR 16
and SU-16, the Daewoo K-l and K-2 rifles (including their civilian counterparts the DR-100
and the DR-200) as well as a plurality of other firearms originating from around the world.
Within STANAG 4179-pattern magazines, there are several variants. The original AR-15/
M16 magazines were of 20-round capacity and had straight bodies with a pronounced waf¬
fle-pattern reinforcement ribbing. This version of the magazine was replaced by the more
familiar 20-round magazine made of aluminum with vertical reinforcing ribs impressed
into the body. The 30-round magazine has largely replaced the 20-round magazines with
military, law enforcement, and civilian users.

STANAG 4179 magazines that meet U.S. military specifications are manufactured
from aluminum, and the manufacturers stamp the floor plate with their information. U.S.
government contractors have included Colt, NHMTG, Adventureline, Okay Industries,
Center Industries, and others. Various companies may have vanity-stamped floor plates,
and the floor plate may have been replaced if the magazine has been rebuilt. C-Products, a
magazine supplier that specializes in this particular style magazine, supplies other compa¬
nies, but they vanity stamp the floor plate with the name of the client who contracted them.
Other manufacturers may be found on the magazine floor plate, but in fact these could be
vanity names stamped by the manufacturer for that particular customer.

Polymer as well as stainless steel-bodied magazines have appeared from commercial
sources, and these generally are found to fit and function in firearms using this pattern
of magazine. The Israeli firm Orlite Engineering developed an AR-pattern magazine that
used Orlite: Teflon-impregnated Zytel that covered a steel-mesh endoskeleton. STANAG
4179 magazines manufactured for the British MoD were so marked on the floor plate,
constructed of steel, and had a grayish parkerized finish. Heckler & Koch developed a
steel magazine dubbed the “High Reliability” magazine. H&K claims that during U.S. mili¬
tary testing, the magazine “improved feeding reliability of the system by 30-50% overall”
(HK Tactical Defense Systems 2010). There are two variants of the magazine: anti-friction
and maritime/anticorrosion. The maritime version is available in 20-round capacity. Both
versions have National Stock Numbers (NSN) indicating that they are recognized within
the U.S. military supply chain.

Magazines for the Ruger Mini-14 and Mini-30 rifles overtly resemble the AR-15/M16
magazine and may be finished in blue or stainless steel. These magazines are not inter¬
changeable due to the manner that the magazine inserts and sits in the Ruger rifle, which
mimics the AK rifle. Like the Ruger Mini-14, the Israeli Galil rifles superficially resemble
the AR-15/M16-pattern magazine, but they are not interchangeable for the same reason.

STANAG is the abbreviation for a Standardization Agreement among NATO partners. The purpose of a
STANAG is primarily to establish commonality of logistics, administrative matters, terminology, and
ease of interchangeabilities of materials within NATO.

Firearms

229

Magazines for the Steyr AUG and the H&K G36 are also proprietary and do not inter¬
change, although a conversion package is available to convert the Steyr AUG. Galil maga¬
zines were manufactured either from heavy-grade steel with a heavy finish or from Orlite.
Interestingly, Galil magazines had a capacity of 35 rounds but did not look much larger
than other magazines.

The AK-pattern rifles chambered in 7.62x39mm are practically universally standard,
regardless of their nation of origin. Certain semiautomatic versions of the AK imported
into the United States may have modified magazine wells so as not to accept the standard
AK-pattern magazine, but these are relatively rare. The 7.62x39mm AK pattern is seen in
10-, 20-, 30-, and 40-round capacities; larger capacity magazines can be found, but are
unusual. Traditionally, they were made of fluted steel and finished in a black-enamel or
parkerized finish. The top of the magazine, where it meets the receiver, is reinforced on
either side and quickly bears indications of insertion and removal as the finish scrapes
off. Steel AK magazines have been supplemented with polymer magazines that vary in
color: black, purple, dark green, dark red, and clear. AK-pattern magazines are not inter¬
changeable by caliber; magazines are specific to 7.62x39mm or 5.45x39mm. East German
5.45x45mm magazines were made of bright-orange-colored Bakelite to distinguish them
from 7.62x39mm magazines. These magazines had steel reinforcement filets in them. The
5.45x39mm magazines can be seen in any color.

AK-pattern magazines have been produced by practically every nation that manufac¬
tured the AK and can be identified by arsenal markings on the magazine body. These
markings coincide with factory codes or symbols used to head stamp ammunition and
mark the firearm. However, some Soviet magazines have been “sterilized”—the markings
removed or never placed.

Shared Magazine Architecture

Some manufacturers share magazines across several products. Hi Point Firearms, an Ohio-
based firearm manufacturer, manufactures two models of carbines, one chambered in
9x19mm and the other chambered in .40 S&W (Model 4095). The magazines are common
between the handguns and carbines of the same chambering. The Beretta CX-4 Storm car¬
bine chambered in 9x19mm shares the magazine of the Beretta 92 pistol or the Px4 Storm
pistol, depending on the model of carbine. Other firearms designers, rather than trying
to design and produce their own magazine, have simply utilized another maker’s maga¬
zine. The Kel-Tec SUB-2000 carbines are manufactured to use a specific magazine from
another manufacturer—Glock, Smith & Wesson, SIG Sauer, or Beretta—and are available
chambered in 9x19mm or .40 S&W. The Kel-Tec SU-16 series of rifles use the standard
AR-15/M16-pattern magazine. The Kel-Tec RFB rifle uses the readily available, inexpen¬
sive 7.62x51mm FAL-pattern magazine. The availability of inexpensive surplus magazines
built for STEN guns, M3 Grease Guns, and the Thompson submachine guns have led to
their adaptation by numerous companies or to conversion kits that permit the use of these
types of magazines in various firearms.

Drum Magazines

The drum is another form of the magazine. Drum magazines have a high ammunition
capacity, well exceeding box-type magazines. Drums are not a new idea, dating back to the

230

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

earliest days of automatic firearms. There was a drum magazine built for use with the Luger
(Pistole 1908 or P/08) pistol, which collectors call the snail drum, and the drum especially
gained notoriety with the Thompson submachine gun during the Prohibition Era. Like other
magazines, the capacity of the drum can vary but typically ranges from 50 to 100 rounds.
Drum magazines are currently manufactured for numerous weapons platforms such as the
Ruger Mini-14 in .223 caliber, the AK and variants, firearms using the AR-15/M16-type
magazine, the H8cK MP-5, and others. The American AR-180 machine gun exclusively used
a drum magazine; there were never other magazines developed for it. Calico Light Weapon
Systems carbines have a unique helically fed, top-mounted magazine of either 50- or 100-
round capacity. The magazine itself physically resembles a small cylinder.

The physical size of the magazine generally has a bearing on the total capacity, but this
is not always the case. In the United States between September 14, 1994, and September 14,
2004, there was a capacity restriction placed on magazines that were sold to individuals.
During this time, magazine capacity was restricted to 10 cartridges. Magazines manufac¬
tured for use by law enforcement, military, and other government entities were exempted
from the restriction, and magazine manufacturers were legally obligated to mark these
exempted magazines accordingly. Smith & Wesson went so far as to assign serial numbers
to individual magazines, presumably for accountability. Since the physical dimensions of
the magazine had to remain the same to fit the host weapon, the physical appearance of
restricted-capacity magazines did not vary from full-capacity magazines. Most manufac¬
turers simply installed plugs or internally modified the magazines to limit the cartridge
capacity. Another magazine marking that has been observed is present on magazines that
were manufactured outside the United States but would have been subject to restriction.
Such magazines were marked to indicate they were not for importation into the United
States. It is not uncommon to encounter ban-era magazines that are so marked in the civil¬
ian market today, but as the law banning civilian possession has expired, these magazines
are no longer subject to any control unless possessed in a venue that prohibits it on the
basis of capacity. Immediately after the ban had lapsed, stockpiles of these magazines were
released for general sale and purchased not only as usable magazines, but also as novelties.

Magazine Components

The features that define a magazine are a body, spring, and a follower. Within the maga¬
zine body is a spring that compresses as a load is placed upon it, thereby providing the
force required to get ammunition from the magazine into the chamber of the firearm.
The spring is capped with a follower, a tab that separates the loaded ammunition from the
spring and pushes the ammunition toward the chamber as the weapon is fired. Magazines
are typically loaded from the top, where the feed lips are located, but some variations exist
that load from the side. The feed lips are located at the top of the magazine and comprise
the material on either side that narrows to ensure that the cartridge will feed smoothly
from the magazine into the host firearm. Damaged or distorted feed lips are often a cause
of functional failures and cannot be overlooked during a firearm exam or inspection. Thin
metal that will deform, as well as plastic that will chip or crack from use, are especially
susceptible to magazine-related failures such as failures to feed or double feeds. Some mag¬
azines may contain a fourth component, a reinforcing plate located at the base of the maga¬
zine between the floor plate and the spring. Drum magazines may be fed either through
the top, called the tower, or by removing the access panel on the drum and loading into the

Firearms

231

Figure 4.32 A magazine for the H&.K USP 9 pistol that has been disassembled into its com¬
ponents: polymer magazine body, magazine follower, magazine spring and reinforcing plate,
and steel floor plate. This magazine bears the restriction markings, in effect between 1994 and
2004. This construction typifies most modern magazines. (Image from author's collection.)

drum body itself. The life span of a magazine is indeterminate. For the most part, maga¬
zines are intended for reuse over a period of time, the only wear item being the spring,
which is replaced from time to time. Figure 4.32 shows a magazine that has been disas¬
sembled into its component parts.

The Clip

A clip is a device entirely different from a magazine. A clip is simply a piece of metal or
plastic that holds cartridges. The clip contains no working parts. Clips can be used to either
load a firearm directly or to load a magazine. Often clips are referred to as stripper clips, as
the cartridges are stripped out of the clip by pressing them into the appropriate magazine.
In many military circles, ammunition is issued on bandoliers, cloth ammunition carriers
that contain preloaded stripper clips. These clips then allow the ammunition to be quickly
loaded into magazines, either directly or by use of a separate stripper-clip guide. Clips may
also be used to feed cartridges directly into the firearm.

The Ml Garand rifle has an internal magazine that is loaded by way of an eight-round
clip. The Garand clip was an en bloc variety where the cartridges were loaded into the clip,
which was made of metal and shaped to resemble a C. When the Garand’s action was open,
the whole clip was inserted into the action and pressed downward until seated. The action
then slammed forward, often causing the much lamented condition known as “Ml thumb”
if the operator was unable to get the thumb out of the way in time. The loaded cartridges
did not leave the clip but, rather, were fed out of the clip, now loaded in the Garand, until
the supply of loaded ammunition was exhausted, at which time the clip was ejected from
the Garand, the action would lock to the rear, and the shooter would insert a fresh clip
and repeat the process. The Ml was a classic military arm, and perhaps the single greatest
battle implement devised, at least according to General George S. Patton, but the en bloc
clip created two significant tactical problems: The first was that single rounds could not
be loaded into the gun—only a fully loaded eight-round clip. This meant that the operator
would have to exhaust the loaded cartridge supply completely; there was no topping off.
The second problem was that when the clip went dry, it was ejected with a loud clanging

232

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.33 An assortment of clips (from left): 5.56x45mm for STANAG magazine; top right:
Ml Garand; bottom right: Mauser 98 pattern. (Image from author's collection.)

noise, letting everyone with an experienced ear in the area know that a Garand shooter was
out of ammunition. The direct descendent of the Ml Garand, the U.S. Rifle M14, did not
share this feature. The M14 was loaded by using a detachable box magazine. Figure 4.33
shows an assortment of clips.

In addition to the Ml Garand, there are other firearms that have internal magazines
that are incorporated into the design and are not ordinarily removable for reloading. They
are still magazines in the true sense of the definition. They contain a spring and a follower,
just like detachable magazines. The internal magazine can be oriented either horizontally
or vertically. The Mauser 98-pattern rifle is an example of a vertically oriented internal
magazine. The magazine is mounted beneath the chamber and is loaded by either inserting
individual cartridges or by pressing five rounds at a time into the magazine using a stripper
clip. The SKS-type rifle,* regardless of the nation of origin, is loaded by means of a 10-round
stripper clip or by loading individual cartridges by hand. The top of the receiver has a guide
notch where the clip is inserted and the rounds are pressed down with thumb pressure. An
unusual Chinese-made variant of the SKS was manufactured and imported into the United
States. The NORINCO SKS 63 was manufactured to use detachable AK-pattern magazines
instead of the internal 10-round magazine. Conversion kits to upgrade the SKS rifle from
the internal magazine to a fixed larger capacity magazine are quite common. Overtly, the
most telling feature that distinguishes the SKS 63 from others is the thumbhole-type stock,
whereas standard SKS rifles have a more traditional rifle stock.

These two are not the only examples of firearms that can be loaded in such a man¬
ner; there are numerous rifles that have the ability to load even a detachable magazine-fed
firearm through the action using stripper clips, including the Belgian FAL-pattern rifles
and copies such as the Springfield SAR 48 and the sporterized SAR 4800, and the British

SKS is an acronym that is translated to Semiautomatic Carbine Simonov. The rifle was developed by
Sergei Simonov, a Russian firearm designer. The design was short-lived, being replaced by the AK-47.
However, the basic design remained with numerous nations under various names: Chinese Type 56, East
Germany Karabiner S, North Korea Type 63, and Yugoslavia M59. There are numerous subvariants that
have been produced, but the basic design remains the same.

Firearms

233

Enfield series of rifles. The presence of a stripper-clip guide on the top of the receiver indi¬
cates that the firearm can be loaded using stripper clips, even if a detachable magazine is
used as the ammunition source.

Ammunition Belts

Belted ammunition was once limited to use in machine guns, but that is no longer the case.
Ammunition belts have been made of cloth or metal. There are two versions of metallic
ammunition belts: continuous belts and those with disintegrating links. Continuous belts
remain wholly intact as they pass through the receiver of the firearm. Linked belts break
apart into individual links or into short sections when fired through the firearm, which
depends entirely on how the belt was designed. There are a number of semiautomatic fire¬
arms that have been manufactured that are fed by an ammunition belt. These firearms are
built using newly fabricated receivers capable of semiautomatic fire only, and then married
to parts kits from donor firearms or from newly made components. Semiautomatic ver¬
sions of the Browning M1919, Browning M2, as well as the German MG-34 and MG-42
have been manufactured. Ohio Ordnance is a manufacturer that has come to specialize in
such firearms, manufacturing a semiautomatic version of the current U.S. military-issue
M240, a belt-fed 7.62x51mm machine gun. The SHRIKE 5.56, developed by Ares Defense
Systems, is a system that bolts onto the lower receiver of any AR-pattern firearm, convert¬
ing it from a magazine-fed weapon into one fed by a belt. The current-issue U.S. military
M249 SAW or Squad Automatic Weapon can be fed either by belt or by inserting a detach¬
able magazine. This was also the case with the H&K 21 general-purpose machine gun.

Internal Magazines

Rifles, shotguns, and even handguns can be fed through a tubular magazine. Tubular mag¬
azines are mounted underneath the barrel of the firearm and are loaded either by a loading
gate underneath the tube or through the loading or ejection port of the firearm. Such fire¬
arms can be operated by slide action, by pump, or as semiautomatics. In the case of a rifle,
the insert in the magazine is removable to facilitate loading and unloading. At the muzzle
end of the magazine is a knurled knob. When twisted, a log tube containing the magazine
spring and follower is withdrawn from the magazine. Cartridges contained in the maga¬
zine can be emptied by turning the firearm down. In the case of a shotgun, the tubular
magazine cannot be unloaded in the same manner. The action may have to be cycled or the
tubular magazine can be emptied by partially opening the action to engage the shell latches
in the magazine tube. Rifles fed by tubular magazines typically only feed cartridges with
round-nose projectiles; it has been a long-standing fear that dropping spitzer or pointed-
nose projectiles onto one another in a tubular magazine where the cartridges would stack
and allow primer-to-projectile tip contact could result in a discharge if the primer were
impacted strongly enough.

Firearm Alterations and Modifications

All firearms can be subjected to tinkering and modifications. Modifications and
alterations to firearms can take the form of simple replacements of stocks or internal

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

components to those thought to improve some deficiency in the original firearm design,
or to modify the firearm to behave in a manner inconsistent with the original specifica¬
tion as manufactured. Alterations and modifications may also be for purely aesthetic
purposes.

Finish, Refinishing, Colors

Cosmetic changes to firearms are quite common. Guns are refinished to suit an owner’s
preference or to restore or rehabilitate a worn firearm. Refinishing was quite common
on war trophies, where owners were tempted to enhance the plain finish of their souve¬
nir gun from a basic military finish to bright chrome. Modern firearms made of alumi¬
num can be anodized any color, and polymer firearm parts can be molded in any color
desired. This carries an inherent risk of a misidentification where an assumption could
made that a blue gun could be mistaken as a training firearm, when in fact it was simply
finished in blue. Likewise, colors such as orange or red could be interpreted to mean
that a firearm was intended for less-lethal application or other purposes. However, it
cannot be assumed that changes to finish or to parts were made by the preference of
the possessor.

Other popular refinishes include contemporary camouflage patterns or any other col¬
ors that may mislead someone from initially believing that the object is a firearm and not
a toy or a model. Orange tips are legally required on firearm analogs such as toy guns,
airsoft guns, and models; however, such tips can be removed or painted over. A refinished
firearm may resist identification due to the markings being smoothed if the firearm is
overpolished in the refinishing process. The proliferation of polymer has only added to the
rainbow, since polymer can be made any color. See Figures 4.34 and 4.35 for examples of
colored handguns.

Figure 4.34 (See color insert.) The Taurus PT738.380 ACP pistol. This example has a frame
molded of pink polymer with a blackened stainless steel slide. The colored appearance of an
apparent firearm cannot be relied upon to distinguish that the object is not a real firearm.
(Image courtesy of Taurus International Manufacturing, Inc.)

Firearms

235

Figure 4.35 (See color insert.) The Gloclc 22P. The 22P is an inert training aid used to famil¬
iarize the user with the pistol without the risk of handling a firearm that could become loaded.
The pistol accepts a magazine, and the trigger is fully functional, but the barrel is solid. The
red frame is meant to alert the user that this example is inert. (Image from author's collection.)

Firearm Chassis

A firearm chassis is a variation on the basic stock or furniture setup of a firearm, especially
rifles and shotguns. Various chassis have been developed that allow a user to remove the
supplied stock and reset the barreled receiver within the new chassis. Such an alteration
may give the firearm the appearance of a completely different weapon and may lead to
an erroneous identification. Chassis systems may also mask the actual make, model, and
serial number of the firearm, and it may require disassembly to ascertain the true firearm
data.

An example of this is the Commando Mark I, manufactured by Volunteer Enterprises.
It was made of a composite material with a pistolized grip and vertical fore grip. The butt
stock was made of wood and resembled that used on the Thompson submachine gun. The
firearm portion of the Commando Mark I was a U.S. military Ml .30 carbine barreled
action that was set into the chassis. A metal upper hand guard was placed over the barrel.
Original carbines used a wooden hand guard; the metal examples appeared postwar and
were used on commercial copies of the carbine. The Commando Mark I was marked on the
side as such, causing many people to mistake this marking as indicating the manufacturer.
As the chassis was not a firearm, no serial number was affixed.

In addition to the Mark I, other variants were produced, some using M1 carbine actions,
other relying on semiautomatic copies of the Thompson submachine gun. Contemporary
semiautomatic copies of the U.S. military M14 rifle can be found with a variety of stock
configurations, such as the MIA manufactured by Springfield Armory, among other mod¬
els, including a copy manufactured by the Chinese NORINCO company. The SOCOM 16,
SOCOM II, and other versions feature the basic MIA design but with a slightly shorter
barrel (16") in a composite stock, in contrast to the traditional wooden stock commonly
associated with the military M14 and the civilian MIA. The U.S. military M14 has received
a new lease on life, designated the Mark 14 Mod 0 Enhanced Battle Rifle. A major portion
of the enhancement is the stock, now featuring a pistol grip for improved ergonomics, a

236

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

telescoping butt stock, and the addition of the military standard MIL-STD-1913 picatinny
rails to attach accessories. The barrel length is reduced from 22" to 18". The chassis system
was developed by Sage International. The Mark 14 Mod 0 is simply a modernized M14:
The original receiver is still used, although aesthetically they do not have much of a resem¬
blance (Armstrong 2007).

The Ruger Mini-14 is available from Ruger in a chassis configuration that gives it a
distinctively different appearance than other Mini-14 rifles. Aftermarket chassis are also
available that radically alter the appearance of the Mini 14. Another Ruger product, the
10/22, a .22 semiautomatic rifle, has a multitude of chassis conversion options. The Ruger
10/22 can mimic the appearance of a Thompson submachine gun, a Krinkov, and even an
MG-42. Owners choosing to reconfigure the appearance of an H&K USC or SL-8 carbine
can find the necessary parts to give the USC the appearance of the UMP submachine gun.
The H&K SL-8 rifle can be modified to give the appearance of the G-36 automatic rifle.
H&K modifications may be accomplished using factory H&K components or aftermarket
parts patterned after factory UMP and G-36 components.

Chassis conversions are not limited to long guns; handgun chassis conversions are
also available. HERA-ARMS, GmbH (High-grade European Research for Small Arms),
manufactures chassis systems for various model Glock handguns as well as Model 1911-
pattern firearms and the SIG 2022 that convert these handguns into carbine-style firearms,
complete with shoulder stocks and accessory rail systems. Such a conversion of a handgun
may present legal issues in certain venues. The investigator is reminded that these chassis
conversions are strictly aesthetic and do not change the operational nature of the fire¬
arm, other than questions related to the configuration or reconfiguration of the firearm.
Figure 4.14 demonstrates another chassis system that can substantially alter the appear¬
ance of the firearm.

Mechanical and Functional Modifications

The alteration, addition, or replacement of factory parts is generally for two purposes. The
first is for purely aesthetic or ergonomically beneficial purposes and in no way affects the
actual function of the firearm. A nonfunctional modification is the addition of bridge
mounts or other means for attaching accessories. All popular makes and models of fire¬
arms have a wide array of aftermarket parts available, including lasers, flashlights, optical
scopes, bipods, grips, and other similar objects.

The second purpose is to cause the firearm to behave in a manner inconsistent with
the specifications as originally manufactured. These modifications work under the sup¬
position that the firearm can be improved upon by the modification of a factory part, or by
replacement of a factory part with an aftermarket one. Modifications of this nature include
changing components in the firing train such as firing pins, springs, triggers, and other
“tuning” kits. Such alterations or modifications maybe directed at the trigger to adjust the
amount of resistance felt in the trigger press, the trigger travel, or trigger reset. Modern
firearms are not designed in the same manner that they were even 40 years ago, very recent
in the context of firearm history. Previously, when fine trigger adjustments were desired,
especially (but not always) for competition guns, a competent gunsmith would make
fine alterations to the relevant interior components, such as polishing feed ramps in an
effort to enhance the reliable feeding of ammunition from the magazine. Sears, trigger
bars, and other components in the firing train were polished, trimmed, or otherwise had

Firearms

237

the “marriage”* of trigger parts reduced to minimal tolerances. Such actions did have the
desired effect; however, the modifications came at a cost, quite often compromising the
inherent safety features built into the firearm per the specification as determined by the
designer and manufacturer.

In previous generations of firearms, modifications were typically undertaken by a
gunsmith. Modern firearms, by design, generally do not require the services of a gun¬
smith to achieve performance modifications such as trigger adjustment. The Heckler &
Koch USP pistols are available with upwards of 10 different factory trigger configurations,
ranging from a traditional double/single-action trigger to a double-action-only trigger,
with or without a manual safety/decocking lever. With such versatility, there is no need
for “gunsmithing” the action of this firearm; the desired configuration is simply obtained
from the factory or the trigger system is swapped out by an armorer. Fine trigger stop
(trigger travel) adjustments can be made by using the provided tools to suit the user.

In the case of Glock handguns, the trigger travel is set by the design of the system;
however, the trigger press resistance is adjustable by the simple replacement of the trigger
spring and connector to one of five different (approximate) weights offered by Glock: 3.5,
4.5, 5, 8, and 12 lbs, the latter being identified as the “New York” trigger. A trigger modi¬
fication on a Glock is an exceptionally easy plug-and-play approach to reconfiguring the
trigger resistance of the pistol; nonetheless, nonstandard efforts to adjust the trigger press
are frequently seen, most typically taking the form of the cruciform portion of the trigger
being cut short to reduce the trigger “break” (the position of the trigger in its travel where
the pistol will fire) and to reduce the felt trigger resistance. Another modification in con¬
junction may to be to cut the trigger spring or alter the connector to provide additional
trigger alteration. A Glock will typically continue to work when such modifications are
made; however, the operation will become erratic.

Another example of trigger alteration is the “release trigger.” Shotguns used for trap
and skeet shooting can have their triggers modified to work in reverse, that is that press¬
ing the trigger does not cause the discharge; rather, releasing a pressed trigger causes the
firearm to discharge. The rationale behind this modification was to allow the shooter to
press the trigger and let it go; theoretically, this would have two effects: It could increase
the speed that the shooter gets the shot off, and it would reduce or perhaps eliminate trigger
control errors causing errant shots. Such a modification obviously creates a safety concern
for uninformed handlers.

Machine Gun Conversions

Aside from “performance enhancements” that are made to firearms, the other purpose for
internal modifications is the conversion of semiautomatic weapons into one capable of fully
automatic fire (see Figure 4.36). As described earlier in this chapter, firearms are generally
operated by a trigger that acts upon a sear, which causes release of the hammer, causing the
firing pin to impact the primer of a cartridge, resulting in detonation. Some designs omit
hammers or sears in lieu of other components that functionally perform the same work but

The marriage is defined as the physical interaction of components, especially in the fire train of a fire¬
arm. Shaving and polishing the contact surfaces has the effect of reducing the marriage of the compo¬
nents, or how they interact with one another, to cause certain effects such as lightened trigger press,
full-automatic fire, or reduced trigger travel and trigger reset.

238

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.36 The H&K 93 rifle, chambered in 5.56x45mm. The trigger group is modified to
permit operation as a machine gun. The conversion required no external modifications, so it is
not obvious. (Image courtesy of Jared Ford.)

may reduce the number of parts or better suit the philosophy of the designer. In cases of semi¬
automatic firearms, part of the internal makeup of components may include a disconnector. A
disconnector prevents the trigger from acting on the sear, literally disconnecting one from the
other between shots, thus allowing for single shots only instead of continuous firing while the
trigger is held down. In so-configured firearms, the disconnector is often a target for modifi¬
cation to override its intended purpose, to stop the trigger from reengaging the sear after the
action cycles post discharge. The sear, if so equipped, could also be a target for modification if
alteration of the disconnector alone would not suffice to cause unrestricted firing.

Firearms that operate from an open bolt, such as early-production MACs, TECs (KG-
9), Uzis, and others, are relatively easy to convert. The nature of an open-bolt weapon is
that the bolt is typically held open by a trigger bar or sear and is captured upon recoil by
a form of trip, disconnector, or an interrupter. By parts modification or replacement, an
open-bolt firearm quickly goes from a semiautomatic to a full auto. As long as there is no
ability to interrupt the bolt’s forward travel after recoil, in theory the gun will continue to
cycle as long as the trigger is held down. Firearms that operated from an open bolt typically
had firing pins fixed to the bolt face, which only simplified the relative ease of conversion.
Since open-bolt guns tend to be operated by straight blowback, with the sheer mass of the
bolt providing sufficient impact force by way of the firing pin to detonate the chambered
cartridge and repeat the process, a machine gun was easily made. In 1982, ATF requested
that manufacturers of open-bolt firearms reconfigure their designs to closed-bolt opera¬
tion in an effort to eliminate such easy conversions. Open-bolt designs did not disappear
from the landscape, however. Machine guns designed for sustained fire, or squad support
roles in a military context, have been configured to fire from an open bolt to avoid the pos¬
sibility of a “cook off,” which is when a cartridge detonates not by primer detonation, but by
the chamber heat being so high that it causes the powder within the cartridge to combust.

Closed-bolt weapons may require a slightly more detailed approach, but nonetheless,
successful conversions can be accomplished. Like their open-bolt siblings, closed-bolt fire¬
arms can be converted by replacement of parts that restrict operation to semiautomatic
function with full-auto-capable parts, or are otherwise modified or reengineered to enable
full-auto operation. The possibilities of conversion are nearly endless. One technical hur¬
dle that must be overcome is that most semiautomatic firearms use a spring-loaded firing
pin contained within the bolt, or in the case of a handgun, the slide. Fixed firing pins have
largely disappeared from the landscape, since they were only used in open-bolt guns. As a

Firearms

239

general statement of safety, spring-loaded firing pins contained within a bolt that are not
regularly cleaned can result in a slam-fire condition that is prompted by the accumulation
of debris buildup around the firing pin, which may inhibit the fluid spring action and cause
the firing pin to fix at the breech face. Of course it is always possible to override the fir¬
ing pin by modification, such as removing the spring and blocking the firing pin by other
means to create a fixed firing pin bolt. In another possible scenario, the use of a spring of
insufficient strength could have the effect of erratic function, or too strong a spring may
also fix the firing pin in position. These unintended consequences are likely to be arrived at
by persons trying to reengineer a firearm to somehow enhance the performance of same,
but without regard for the true implications of their handiwork.

Conversions are often attempted, and may be successful, by using mundane items such
as wire ties, shoe strings, fishing line, paper clips, hair pins, and other sundries as a means
to alter the behavior of the firearm’s action. Conversion can be effected by using fishing
line, shoe strings, or twine by looping both ends of the line and attaching one end to the
charging handle and the other end to the trigger. This method would only be effective on
arms whose charging handle reciprocates back and forth with the action. The theory is
that the trigger is depressed by line tension created as the operating handle travels forward.
Such a conversion would not likely leave any usable physical evidence behind when the line
was unwrapped from the firearm. However, the presence of the line, assuming a firearm
were seized with the line intact, gives clear indication of the intent of the modification. In
such a scenario, the examiner would have to identify the line as the “sear” because that is
the mechanical function that the line is assuming.

As is often the case, semiautomatic firearms, particularly rifles whose design is
shared with machine guns, differ little mechanically from their full-auto counterparts.
Conversions of all varieties can be accomplished on nearly any semiautomatic firearm.
If weapons are seized and there is suspicion that alterations may have been made to con¬
vert firearms into machine guns, it is strongly suggested that knowledgeable personnel be
brought in as soon as practical. Items of particular interest in the scope of a search con¬
cerning weapons offenses should include the following:

Literature: books, computer printouts, or electronic media that outline conversion
techniques, especially the modification or construction of parts
Additional firearms components and parts, especially those showing evidence of
milling, grinding, polishing, and cutting from their original design
Recognized firearms components that maybe considered contraband: full-auto sears,
machine gun receivers, and other components and parts that could be used to con¬
struct a machine gun or convert an existing firearm to a machine gun
Discarded materials or components from aborted prior attempts, experiments,
and tinkering

Abnormally high wear on a firearm, based upon its relative age, indicating a higher
than expected round count

Field-Testing Procedure for Automatic Weapons

The generally accepted procedure for field testing a weapon suspected of being a machine
gun is relatively simple. It must be stressed that this procedure is not an absolutely conclu¬
sive evaluation that can be performed in lieu of a more detailed analysis by a competent

240

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

examiner. However, the field test can be treated as an indicator that a firearm may be a
machine gun by definition. If the firearm in question was manufactured as a machine gun
originally, but has been reconfigured mechanically as a semiautomatic firearm, this pro¬
cedure will not work. The examiner must be able to identify the exhibit as a machine gun
by sight or design characteristic. As with all firearm handling, the first consideration is
safety: The handler must be certain that the exhibit is unloaded. As previously discussed,
the ammunition source must be identified, isolated, and removed. The chamber is then
cleared; do not attempt to catch any ammunition or casing that is ejected from the cham¬
ber. Repeat the clearing procedure several times to ensure that the firearm is unloaded.

Closed Bolt-Action Field-Test Procedure

Ensure that the firearm is unloaded, i.e., the ammunition source has been removed
and the chamber is clear. Clear the action several times and inspect visually and
tactilely.

Ensure that the firearm safety is in the off position. If the firearm has multiple fire
positions, each position should be tested independently.

Allow the bolt or slide to return to battery (forward). Do not “ride the slide” by
keeping hold of the bolt or slide, allow it to freely move under the action of the
firearm mechanism.

With slide forward or bolt closed, press the trigger and maintain pressure, do not
relax the force being exerted on the trigger.

While fully pressing the trigger, fully pull the slide or bolt back with the nonweapon
hand and release it. The bolt or slide should return to a closed or battery position.

Release the trigger, and then pull the trigger again.

If the firing mechanism trips, often with an audible report such as a click, when the
trigger is pressed again, the firearm is testing as a semiautomatic.

If the firing mechanism does not trip, the firearm is testing as a machine gun.

Open-Bolt-Action Procedure

Ensure that the firearm is unloaded, i.e., the ammunition source has been removed
and the chamber is clear. Cycle the action several times and inspect visually and
tactilely.

Ensure that that the firearm safety is in the off position. If the firearm has multiple
fire positions, each position should be tested independently.

Open the bolt fully to the rear; it should lock in place.

Press the trigger and maintain pressure on it; do not release the trigger.

While still holding the trigger down, pull the bolt to the rear to cock it again.

If the bolt locks again in place, the firearm is semiautomatic.

If the bolt freely reciprocates with the trigger pressed, it is a machine gun.

Case Studies of Commonly Converted Firearms
MAC-Pattern Firearms

The MAC (Military Armaments Corp.)-pattern firearm has been a target for conversions
since the firearms were released into the commercial market, despite the fact that they were

Firearms

241

legally available as machine guns until 1986. The MAC was originally conceived by Gordon
Ingram, and this family of firearms is often colloquially referred to as “Ingrams,” although
they were officially titled as the MAC. There were two models of the MAC: the MAC 10
chambered in .45 ACP and 9x19mm, and the MAC 11, which is chambered in .380 ACP,
as well as a 9x19mm version, the MAC 11/9. Mechanically, the MAC 11 is exactly the same
as the MAC 10, although its overall dimensions are diminutive when they are compared.
The MAC design has changed hands numerous times over the years, the guns being manu¬
factured by such firms as SWD, RPB, Jersey Arms, and most recently MPA (Masterpiece
Arms). The MAC has been available as either a machine gun or as a semiautomatic pistol.
The only significant design change to the MAC was the switch from open bolt to a closed-
bolt operation in 1982, per ATF requirement. Nonetheless, all MAC firearms are popular
for conversion to machine guns, primarily due to their relative availability, simplicity, and
numerous established methods for conversion.

The most obvious MAC conversion can be accomplished by copying the factory work.
A hole is drilled in the receiver in the correct spot, and a full-auto sear, sear spring, trip,
disconnector, and selector (sear pin) are installed. This is remanufacturing the firearm by
replacing and adding the parts to complete the conversion.

A simple and popular method of converting a MAC entails filing down the bolt trip so
that the bolt would not catch it after cycling when the trigger was held down, allowing the
bolt’s forward travel to perpetuate sustained fire. The standard trip was not constructed
of hardened steel; only the version intended for installation in the machine gun was. The
alteration permits the firearm to fire full auto only, since there is nothing for the hammer
to catch to stop the cycle of action from occurring. Alternatively, the bolt can be modified
so that the marriage between it and the bolt trip is altered, the same effect as described by
the prior alteration. However, this approach differs in that the modification is made to the
bolt rather than the trip. On the bottom of the bolt on the right side is a groove that mar¬
ries with the bolt trip, and removal of material in that space completes the conversion. This
may be done in concert with alteration to the bolt trip itself if the person undertaking the
conversion is unsure that it will be successful or wants to be more thorough. Modification
to the bolt as described may be desirable since, in absence of modifications to other com¬
ponents, a replacement bolt may be installed and the modified bolt hidden away, thereby
erasing evidence of the conversion should the firearm be subject to inspection. Conversely,
when full operation is desired, the firearm is quickly disassembled and the modified bolt
is installed.

An extremely simple conversion that can be attempted in lieu of these mechanical
modifications is to install a wire in the receiver by wrapping it around the disconnector
to retard its positioning, hence rendering it essentially inoperable and accomplishing the
same goal as a mechanical reconfiguration of the disconnector. This alteration would cause
the firearm to fire in full auto only. Because the MAC was purpose built as a machine
gun, there is little risk that the conversion will cause a catastrophic failure to the firearm.
An even easier and simpler, yet fully reversible method to converting an open-bolt MAC
pistol into a machine gun is to take a pencil eraser, small coins, or similar articles and
fashion them into a buffer of sorts. This buffering is then stacked behind the trigger to stop
the trigger in the sweet spot, which is a cusp where the trigger cannot be tripped by the
disconnector, creating a very reliable machine gun. This functionally has the same effect
as retarding the disconnector, but instead affecting the trigger/disconnector relationship
from the trigger side.

242

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Heckler Si Koch

Heckler & Koch firearms were, at one time, a very popular platform for those seeking to con¬
vert a semiautomatic weapon into a reliable, functioning machine gun. The renowned quality
and durability of H&K firearms ensure that converted models are capable of sustained use as
machine guns. The popular targets for conversion were the H&K Models 41 (7.62x51mm),
91 (7.62x51mm), 911 (7.62x51mm), SR9 (7.62x51mm), 93 (5.56x45mm), 94 (9x19mm), and
the SP-89 (9x19mm). H&K briefly imported a semiautomatic version of its G.3 machine gun
that was marked G.3. This nomenclature was later changed to HK 41, mechanically differ¬
entiated only by the omission of the components to permit fully automatic operation. All of
the aforementioned models are essentially the same gun—all operated by the delayed roller
lock bolt system—the only significant difference being the firearms’ physical dimensions
and the caliber. Hence certain components are not universally interchangeable between the
models. It has been over 20 years since H&K was able to import the semiautomatic versions
of its machine guns; however, several companies manufacture H&K clones, such as Cohaire
Arms in Mesa, Arizona, and PTR 91 Inc. (formerly JLD Enterprises). Other companies such
as Hesse manufactured receivers in the United States and built new firearms from parts kits
that originated from various areas of the world. In addition, H&K copies were imported
into the United States from places such as Greece (the SAR 3 and SAR 8 through Springfield
Armory), Spain (CETME), and Portugal (INDEP).

There are numerous approaches to converting these H&K models into machine guns,
some requiring modifications to the firearm receiver. Other methods employ a combina¬
tion of receiver modifications coupled with converting the trigger pack within the grip
assembly. Yet others are a hybrid of receiver alterations and replacement or alteration of
semiautomatic parts with machine gun parts. Due to numerous design changes engineered
into the firearms over the time they were sold commercially, the result is a dizzying array
of possibilities. When faced with a potentially modified H&K-type firearm, the examiner
must first understand the workings of the firearm and identify the parts and configuration
combination to ascertain what has been altered, if anything, to convert the firearm into
a machine gun. As a general rule, the trigger group is not a “gun part” until mated to a
machine gun modified receiver; it may be possible to encounter machine gun marked trig¬
ger groups installed on semiautomatic H&K firearms or H&K clones.

The earliest imported H&K G.3 (or HK 41)-type rifles are identified by their charac¬
teristic markings: “Golden State Arms Co., Santa Fe Division.” These rifles started being
imported into the United States in the early 1960s. The model and other particulars are
stamped on the left side of the receiver above the magazine well. These early imports poten¬
tially could be made to fire in full auto by counterclockwise rotation of the fire selector
lever to the blank spot where the full-auto position would normally be, roughly at the 5
o’clock position. By design, the fire selector lever would normally be rotated clockwise' to
set the fire condition of the rifle. This conversion is accomplished by removing the stock
and the grip assembly to gain access to the trigger housing that contains the safety/selector
switch. The switch is then rotated counterclockwise and the parts are reassembled. If such

The H&K pistol grip assembly can be marked in either letters, numbers, or icons to indicate the position
of the safety/selector switch. White S indicates safe; red E indicates semiauto fire; red F would indicate
full auto. The numbers reflect white "0" safe, red "1" single shot, red "20" or "25" for full auto. The H&K
icon-marked pistol grips show bullets in a barrel to indicate safe, single, full, or burst-fire switch posi¬
tion, with white indicating safe and red indicating fire positions.

Firearms

243

Figure 4.37 Close-up image of the modified trigger group from the H&.K 93. The sear has
been modified by beveling the edges, and an H&K factory full-auto hammer has been installed,
replacing a semiautomatic-style hammer. Note the "XX" marking, indicating that the hammer
is machine gun specification. (Image courtesy of Jared Ford.)

an example is observed, it may be possible to determine if the firearm has been subjected
to this alteration by observing the characteristic circular wear mark on the side of the grip
assembly. Under normal, routine use, the selector lever would not be rotated past the safe
position and certainly not in a counter-clockwise motion. Otherwise, an internal inspec¬
tion will reveal the positioning of the selector switch.

A method of conversion for H&K firearms that has come to light has been reported
by Firearms Examiner Jared Ford, Oregon State Police Forensic Services. The firearm in
question was an H&K 93 rifle, chambered in 5.56x45mm. The conversion process entailed
switching the hammer from the purpose semiautomatic hammer to the full-auto spec¬
ification hammer, and then polishing the sear where it engages the hammer to reduce
the marriage between the two parts (see Figures 4.37 and 4.38). The adjustment of the
marriage between the sear and the hammer was probably sufficient to accomplish conver¬
sion because when a semiautomatic hammer was installed in place of the full-auto ham¬
mer, the firearm functioned as a machine gun. Full-auto fire was accomplished when the
selector switch/safety was in the “1” position, the semiautomatic position; thus the firearm
was incapable of semiautomatic fire as modified. The advantage of this approach is that it
likely will leave little, if any, residual evidence behind of the alteration when the parts are
removed and replaced with the standard semiautomatic parts, thus completing the decep¬
tion (Ford 2010).

The Heckler & Koch USC (Universal Self-Foading Carbine) and SF-8 carbines oper¬
ate using different systems and are not interchangeable with the H&K models that oper¬
ate using the delayed roller lock bolt system. The USC carbine is chambered in .45 ACP
and operates on the blowback principle; the SF-8 functions on the now-familiar short-
stroke gas piston. Conversions effected on these firearms may be made by modification to
the receivers and internal components. There are some similarities between the USC and
the UMP-45, which is a submachine gun, as well as the SF-8 and the G.36. The G.36 is a
machine gun. Aesthetic conversions are performed to make the USC resemble the UMP,
likewise with the SF-8 to resemble a G.36 and even accept G.36-pattern magazines. In

244

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.38 The modified sear from the H&.K 93. Both pictured sears are for semiautomatic
guns. The sear on the left has been modified by making additional cuts to alter the marriage
of the sear in relation to other trigger parts. The altered sear was installed in the trigger group.
(Image courtesy of fared Ford.)

theory, conversions of these firearms into machine guns can be accomplished by modifica¬
tions to the receiver and internal parts.

AR-Pattern Firearms

The AR-pattern firearm is a very popular platform for full-auto conversions. Converted
AR firearms may take the form of pistols, short-barreled rifles, carbines, or full-sized
rifles. There are numerous methods of effecting a reliable conversion of an AR from a
semiautomatic weapon into a machine gun. The attractiveness of the AR platform as a
vehicle for conversion is multifold. First, an AR lower receiver is relatively inexpensive
and readily available, especially when compared to other firearms that could be consid¬
ered as candidates for conversion. Second, the availability and low cost of replacement
parts allows for a good deal of experimentation and reworking of components. Third,
the modularity of the design to fit multiple configurations and calibers appeals to a
wide audience.

In an effort to stem postfactory alterations, Colt originally undertook a number of
different measures that have not been adapted across the plethora of manufacturers who
now produce an AR firearm, and there are many. One measure was a redesign of the bolt
carrier group. A full-auto bolt carrier is a completely round rear section with a channel on
the bottom that interacts with the hammer, allowing it to reset and act against the full-
auto sear. The revised semiautomatic bolt carrier did away with this, instead having an
open horseshoe-shaped rear portion. The missing part of the horseshoe is where the ham¬
mer travel occurs; thus there is no interaction between the bolt carrier and the hammer.
A full-auto-type (M16) bolt carrier may not be required if a bolt carrier converter is used.
The converter was simply a piece of steel in the shape of the bolt carrier group that filled in
the missing material in the M16-style bolt carrier. The converter is installed onto the bolt

Firearms

245

carrier and affixed into place by screws, allowing a semiautomatic bolt carrier to act as the
full-auto variant. These converters are seldom, if ever, encountered anymore because of the
widespread availability of M16-style bolt carriers.

A second modification was to not mill out the portion of the lower receiver where the
auto sear would sit, often called the sear block. Like the bolt carrier, this practice is not
observed by all manufacturers. A third alteration, while not affecting the fire-control parts,
involves an oversized (.315”) pivot pin hole. The pivot-pin hole is the hole at the front of
the lower receiver, just underneath the barrel. This nonstandard-diameter pivot pin was
designed to deter users from replacing the Colt commercial specification upper receiver
with a military one. Certain manufacturers may occasionally offer upper receivers with the
oversized pivot-pin hole; however, the Colt nonstandard pivot-pin diameter was overcome
by use of an offset pin that would permit a mil-spec (.250") upper to mate with a Colt-
manufactured lower receiver with the oversized hole.

Replacing Semiautomatic Parts with Machine Gun Parts

The most obvious way to convert a semiautomatic ARto a machine gun is simply by replacing
the semiautomatic fire-control parts with machine gun control parts. This involves chang¬
ing the bolt carrier (to possibly include swapping the firing pin to a large flange type, but
this is not really necessary to complete the conversion), hammer (there is an extra spur on
a full-auto-style hammer),* trigger, selector/safety switch, full-auto sear, and disconnector.

The author is aware of instances where AR-15 rifles have had five of the machine gun
parts installed, minus the full-auto sear, and they were capable of full-auto function, albeit
erratically. In theory, disabling or removing the disconnector from a modified receiver,
especially without an auto sear in place, will cause the firearm to function as a machine
gun, even if it discharges in unpredictable bursts before the action trips and ceases fire.
On a gun set up for burst fire, as opposed to full auto, the hammer will be a different
design from a semiautomatic-style or full-automatic-style hammer. A burst-style hammer
is ratcheted; the burst-type hammer spring will also be different, as the hammer-spring
legs are offset. The standard M16 burst-fire control parts are set up to fire in three-round
increments per press of the trigger, and then the sear resets and the next press of the trigger
will fire three additional rounds and so forth until the ammunition supply is exhausted,
rounding off to 10 three-round bursts per 30-round magazine.

Burst parts and full-auto parts are not interchangeable per se to complete a conversion;
however, the presence of these parts within the firearm may constitute a machine gun, or
at least intent to manufacture one, and likely could be the result of the unfamiliarity of
components to the builder. This relative ignorance may result from someone who obtains
parts that were mislabeled, or the builder may have been misled by following instructions
obtained from sources who themselves know no better. The physical installation of a full-
auto sear will require the lower receiver to have a hole drilled in it to accommodate the sear
pin that holds the sear in place. This hole is located above the SEMI-marked fire position
above the safety selector switch. The mere presence of this hole—regardless of the presence
of other fire-control parts, physical modifications, or other means of apparent alteration—
qualifies the receiver as a machine gun under U.S. federal law (see Figure 4.39). Templates

The hammer style can be instrumental to the success or failure of the conversion, as the notch on the
hammer is designed to prevent full-auto fire should the sear or disconnector fail to work in semiautomatic
operation.

246

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.39 A close-up of the right side of an AR-15 lower receiver. Note the three positions of
the selector switch: SAFE, SEMI, AUTO. The hole above the SEMI position is for the auto sear
pin. Although no sear is installed in this gun and the pin hole is empty, the mere presence of
this hole would define this receiver as a machine gun. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.40 The drop-in auto sear. The DIAS is easy to manufacture and conceal. Literally
dropping into the lower receiver, the DIAS converts the host AR weapon into a very reliable
machine gun. (Image from author's collection.)

and jigs that provide the precise location to drill the hole and the hole diameter are readily
available from various sources.

Drop-In Auto Sear

In lieu of swapping semiautomatic parts for full-auto parts and the requisite modification
to the lower receiver, the introduction of two alternative-style sears has long been known
as a means of conversion, and both are quite common. The first type of sear is the DIAS
(drop-in auto sear) (see Figure 4.40). As the name implies, the drop-in auto sear literally
drops into the AR lower receiver and acts as the traditional full-auto sear. The DIAS inserts
into the rear of the AR lower behind the hammer and in front of the buffer tube. An M16

Firearms

247

(full auto)-style bolt carrier is used in conjunction with the DIAS. It is important to note
that properly registered DIASs can be legally possessed in the United States. That having
been said, there is an untold number of contraband DIASs in existence, and they routinely
turn up and likely are clandestinely manufactured.

The DIAS is a simple and reversible conversion. All that is required is to properly fit it
to the lower receiver and install the unit. Some AR lowers do not readily accept the DIAS.
The portion of the lower receiver where the DIAS would be installed has a “sear block.”
The material is not milled away, and so the lower must be modified to accept the DIAS
or a standard full-auto sear. The DIAS has to be trimmed to fit the appropriate width of
the receiver well, given subtle tolerances either way on the part of the receiver and the
DIAS. In the United States, the possession of an unregistered DIAS could conceivably be
construed as possession of a machine gun. The DIAS was not considered a machine gun
until November 1, 1981; thus, if the example in question was manufactured prior to that
date, there is no prohibition against having one unless it is possessed in conjunction with
an AR-pattern firearm. Proving that the DIAS is a grandfathered example may be very dif¬
ficult; however, proving that it is not maybe equally difficult.

Lightning Link

Another form of conversion is the installation of a Lightning Link (see Figure 4.41). Like
the drop-in auto sear, the Lightning Link is rapidly installed and removed. Like the
DIAS, the Lightning Link is installed at the rear of the AR lower receiver and acts as the
sear, allowing for full-auto operation. The Lightning Link works by retarding the travel
of the disconnector, moving it out of reach from the hammer, thereby preventing the
hammer from engaging with the disconnector after the trigger is pressed. Unlike some
other approaches to conversion, the Lightning Link allows controlled fire: When the
trigger is released, the hammer will be stopped in the cocked position by the Lightning
Link. Like the DIAS, there are lawfully possessed Lightning Links that were manufac¬
tured prior to the 1986 prohibition of further manufacture of machine guns, and like
the DIAS, possession of an unregistered Lightning Link could constitute possession of
a machine gun.

The Lightning Link was manufactured by SWD in Atlanta, Georgia, as the M15AC.
This was the same SWD that manufactured MAC-pattern firearms, including machine
guns. As the Lightning Link itself is considered a machine gun, even if uninstalled, there

Figure 4.41 The lightning link can be manufactured using hand tools and sheet metal.
The lightning link is easily concealed and requires no modifications to the host weapon to
install. It would likely be overlooked by an untrained eye during a search. (Image from author's
collection.)

248

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

would be a serial number and other pertinent information affixed. The Lightning Link
can be a well-manufactured item of choice materials, but it can just as easily be crudely
sawn from sheet metal and roughly fashioned, so clandestine manufacturing can be eas¬
ily accomplished. Like all auto sears, instructions and blueprints are easily obtained for
guidance in manufacturing a Lightning Link. There is no 1981 exemption to the Lightning
Link, as in the case of the DIAS.

Open-Bolt Modification

Another possible conversion, albeit more complicated than those discussed previously,
involves converting the AR firearm to operate from an open bolt by substantial modifica¬
tions to the fire-control parts and the addition of a striker to the bolt-carrier group that
acts upon the firing pin, with the modified hammer acting on the striker, as opposed to the
firing pin itself. As would be expected in any open-bolt striker system, the hammer takes
on the role of a sear and simply holds the action open until the trigger is pressed, releas¬
ing the bolt and causing discharge and subsequent cyclic fire to occur. Such a conversion
may entail the removal of the bolt catch assembly from the lower, as using the bolt catch
to release the bolt carrier into battery would cause the firearm to discharge. The bolt catch
itself is traditionally a problematic piece in the AR, being susceptible to releasing the bolt if
the weapon is jarred hard enough or if the firearm is banged on a hard surface. Open-bolt
M16s are not unheard of; the Colt Light Machine Gun fires from an open bolt.

Indicia of a Converted AR Firearm

Indications that an AR has been converted, or that there has been an attempt to convert,
should be noted, because this may be prima facie evidence that the firearm in question is
a machine gun:

Presence of a sear hole in the lower receiver located above the SEMI fire position on
the safety selector, regardless of whether or not there is a third position marked
AUTO or BURST

Evidence of grinding, cutting, or milling at the rear of the lower receiver behind or
around the area of the hammer

Installation of any combination of identified machine gun-specific fire-control parts,
even in the absence of a sear (remember that a sear can take several forms)

Receiver Markings

The most obvious AR-pattern machine gun is one that is factory built or a firearm recon¬
structed to imitate a factory-built machine gun. Contrary to popular belief, not every
machine gun manufactured by Colt is marked M16; there are examples marked AR-15
(see Figure 4.42). Nor is it true that only M16-marked rifles were manufactured for the
U.S. military; AR-15 rifles can be marked PROPERTY OF U.S. GOVT. Early examples of
Colt-manufactured AR15 (in this instance, the is omitted from the receiver marking)
machine guns may be marked PATENTS PENDING, dating the firearm to when Colt had
just secured the rights to manufacture from Armalite. Such examples are marked as Colt
and Armalite, as the Model 01 in .223 caliber. Factory-manufactured machine guns will be
readily apparent, regardless of the markings on the receiver, by the three-position safety/
selector switch that is marked SAFE, SINGLE, AUTO (or BURST in lieu of AUTO). Some
variations, such as the H&K 416, use icons to denote the same information.

Firearms

249

Figure 4.42 For anyone who has ever doubted that Colt ever manufactured an AR-15 for the
U.S. military, here is the proof. This is an early Colt-built gun, bearing the dual AR-15 and M16
markings. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.43 An M16 produced under contract by the Hydra-Matic Division of General Motors.
Hydra-Matic-marked examples are seldom seen. (Image from author's collection.)

The AR-15/M16 is not solely the realm of Colt; many other companies have manufac¬
tured these machine guns, and so any number of manufacturer names can be expected. In
addition to Colt, M16s have been purchasedby the U.S. government from FN Manufacturing
in South Carolina as well as earlier production (late 1960s to early 1970s) by the Hydra-
Matic Division of General Motors (see Figure 4.43), and Harrington & Richardson in about
the same time period as Hydra-Matic.

The examiner cannot rely on the general features of the exhibit under study because
the design is so modular that anything on the weapon could have been upgraded or
changed, so the receiver markings are what are materially relevant on a factory-manu¬
factured machine gun or a firearm remanufactured into a machine gun by a third party.
As with semiautomatic examples, AR-15/M16-pattern rifles are manufactured as machine
guns by other companies, so variations in manufacturer markings and model numbers are
expected if such an example is encountered.

250

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Intratec Pistols

The KG-9 pistol originated from the Swedish firm Interdynamic. The design was brought
into the United States and manufactured by the firm Intratec in Miami, Florida, until the
company ceased operation in 2001. Classified as a handgun, this pattern was produced in
calibers .22 Long Rifle and 9x19mm Luger. Both calibers were marketed under a variety of
different model names, the .22 as the Scorpion and the Sport; the 9mm version as the TEC-
9, TEC-DC9, and KG-99. The term TEC-9 has come to generically identify all the mod¬
els, even the .22 versions, regardless of the proper model designation that appears on the
firearm. A more compact version of the pistol chambered in 9mm was sold as the Model
AB-10 (where the term AB is an acronym for “after ban”). Another model, the MP-9, was
touted as a commercially available machine gun, but apparently the model was plagued by
development issues and there are likely very few, if any, in existence.

Although legally defined as a handgun, the Intratec pattern exhibits characteristics
more customarily associated with a short rifle or carbine, short of having a shoulder stock.
It is physically large in contrast to other handguns, and its overall appearance is not con¬
sistent with that traditionally associated with pistols, including a magazine well that is
forward of the pistol grip and a cocking handle instead of reciprocating slide. All models
were fed by detachable magazines, which were available in various ammunition capacities.
The frame is constructed of polymer, with the upper portion constructed of steel and hav¬
ing a matte parkerized or stainless steel finish. A threaded barrel was initially available but
was later removed when the firearm became subject to various legislative initiatives that
classified it as an assault weapon. To complement the threaded barrel, barrel extensions
were sold that resembled the TEC barrel, having a metal shroud around the barrel itself.
These extensions may be mistaken for a suppressor, although they were not originally
manufactured as such.

Since a threaded barrel was listed as a feature on a potential assault weapon, postban
models featured a barrel without the threading on the muzzle. The model designations
also changed, as the firearm was banned by identifying it specifically by model. A different
model designation effectively circumvented the affecting legislation. On the 9mm models,
the safety is integral to the operating or “charging” handle; the .22 models had a safety
sliding switch on the left side of the receiver. Another difference between the two was the
operating handle on .22 guns consisting of two tabs, one on either side of the receiver.

The firearm operates by blowback, and early models fired from an open bolt and had
a firing pin that was fixed to the bolt face. This feature was later changed so that firing was
by closed bolt with a floating firing pin. The simplicity of the design made the KG-9 very
susceptible to conversion from a semiautomatic firearm to one capable of fully automatic
operation. In the case of the open-bolt version, the bolt was held open by the sear. Polishing
of the sear could directly affect the marriage between the sear and the bolt, denying the
sear the ability to capture and retain the bolt if the trigger were held down, allowing con¬
tinuous fire. It is possible that ordinary use could eventually cause the sear to wear down
and inadvertently cause full-auto operation.

Modification to the sear alone maybe sufficient to achieve full-auto fire, but sear modi¬
fication may be coupled with filing down the disconnector as an additional measure to
ensure success. A thorough conversion could be made to an Intratec by much the same
method as a MAC—by altering the bolt body in concert with (a) retarding or defeating the
disconnector and (b) sear modification. The bolt body would have material removed from

Firearms

251

it in the area where it interacts with the disconnector, once again affecting the marriage
between the two parts.

Intratec manufactured other models beyond the TEC family Handguns marketed
as the CAT and Pro“tec”tor series had a more traditional pistol appearance. Intratec also
manufactured a derringer, the TEC-38, chambered in .38 Special. The TEC-38 had two
barrels in an over/under configuration.

Glock Pistols

The simplicity and durability of the Glock design has made it a handgun that has success¬
fully been converted to a machine gun using several approaches. Because all Glock mod¬
els are built exactly the same, any single method of conversion will work on any model,
regardless of caliber. Glock does, in fact, manufacture a full-auto version of the Model 17
9x19mm, the Glock 18. There is also the compensated model, the Glock 18c. The inter¬
nal components of the Glock 18 were deliberately redesigned to thwart attempts at using
diverted components to convert other pistols into automatic weapons.

The Glock 18 has an external selector switch located on the left side of the slide in
rear-slide serrations. This selector switches between single shots and full auto. Glock 18s
are marked and serial numbered as any other Glock product, and are overtly the same as
the other standard-frame models. Modifications performed with the intent of convert¬
ing a Glock into a machine gun typically focus on changing the geometry and/or the
marriage between the firing pin and the cruciform portion of the trigger bar. U.S. Patent
5,705,763 illustrates a device that is installed in the place of the slide cover plate. The
device alters the marriage between the trigger bar and firing pin to permit full-auto fire
(Leon 1998). Various other examples of similar devices have been fabricated and distrib¬
uted, typically as a direct replacement for the factory slide cover plate. Some versions of
these conversion plates (which are definable as a sear by virtue of function, as a standard
cover plate serves no mechanical function) have an external switch that acts as a selector
switch. Other examples may not be equipped with a switch, instead making the modified
Glock capable of full-auto fire only. These conversion plates should not be confused with
the orange armorers cover plate that is designed for inspection of the marriage between
the trigger bar and firing pin to determine if replacement is necessary. Some conversions
may require the removal of some of the polymer material from the frame around the trig¬
ger bar.

The modified Glock 17 shown in Figures 4.44 and 4.45 demonstrates another approach.
The trigger mechanism housing has been modified by cutting away some of the polymer on
the top and left side. The left side of the cruciform portion of the trigger bar has been bent
upward, allowed by the relief cut made in the trigger mechanism housing, and beveled on
the edge. The slide had a hole drilled adjacent to the firing pin, and a metal pin was seated
that would correspond to the modified part of the trigger bar. The net effect would be that
this pin would retard the marriage between the cruciform portion of the trigger bar and
the firing pin, ensuring reliable full-auto function. The trigger bar, as modified with the
upward facing tab, has the functional role of an auto sear. As the trigger is pressed, the
movement would cause the upward bent portion of the trigger bar to meet with the pin in
the slide, which would push the trigger bar down under trigger pressure.

A similar conversion has been observed, albeit more complicated than the one
described. This other conversion adds a selector switch to the left side of the slide. The

252

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.44 Details of the trigger mechanism housing of a Glock 17. The modifications made
to convert this pistol into a machine gun are evident. A shoulder stock has been attached to the
pistol, and is partially visible on the right side of the image. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.45 Details of the slide from the same Glock 17 shown in Figure 4.44. Observe the
added round metal piece to the right of the firing pin, which would correspond to the trigger-
bar modification in the frame. As an additional measure, the elevated rail in the slide has been
polished down, probably to ensure that it would not push the trigger bar down into the discon¬
nector. This was a labor-intensive conversion. (Image from author's collection.)

switch controls a small trapdoor that extends or retracts, thereby affecting the trigger bar.
Extensive machining is involved in this conversion, requiring more skill and tools than the
first conversion, with practically the same result.

Advisory bulletins alerting law enforcement to the existence of converted Glock hand¬
guns have been published since at least as early as January 2004, although it is likely that
conversions have been undertaken long before any examples surfaced. With the prolifera¬
tion of handguns of similar design such as the Smith & Wesson M&P pistol line and the
Springfield Armory XD pistol series, it is likely that conversions will be attempted on these
as well using similar methods.

SKS (Simonov Carbine Self-Loading)

The SKS is often mistaken as an AK-pattern firearm, and there are some outward simi¬
larities between the two. However, they are distinctively different. The SKS predates the

Firearms

253

AK by a few years, and they are both of Russian origin. The SKS was widely copied by
Soviet satellite states and was known by numerous designations. The SKS can be found
in a plurality of configurations, but the basic firearm is the same. The SKS is, mechani¬
cally speaking, a relatively simple firearm that is built with fairly loose internal tolerances.
Conversion of an SKS into a reliable machine gun can be accomplished by several differ¬
ent methods.

One method involves the construction of a drop in auto sear with supportive parts
modifications made internally. One sear design is constructed of flat metal and has the
appearance of a two-pronged fork or a U that is slightly hooked on the forked end. The sear
is installed in front of the trigger with the forked end adjacent to the trigger and underneath
the factory sear. Some disassembly of the rifle is required to accomplish the conversion,
but when the drop-in auto sear is removed, it will leave no evidence behind. The simpler
method entails blocking the sear disconnector, which permits the trigger to control the
sear and defeats the disconnector, a classic approach to converting a semiautomatic firearm
with an internal hammer that relies on a disconnector to catch and retain the hammer after
each shot is fired. Shims can be fabricated or foreign objects installed to create this effect.

An untold number of SKS rifles manufactured as machine guns were imported from
China in the late 1980s and entered the United States. The error was not detected until some
time after the rifles had been distributed through commercial channels. These examples
will have a selector switch located in front of the trigger guard. This should not be confused
with the safety switch, which is beside the trigger guard. Despite efforts to confiscate these
firearms, there are likely many still in existence. SKS rifles were also regularly brought into
the United States by American servicemen returning from the Vietnam War as souvenirs,
and some of these may have been configured as machine guns. Under ideal conditions,
such a weapon would have a provenance attached to it, such as declaration paperwork.
SKS-pattern rifles have been commercially imported into the United States from Albania,
Russia, and the independent states within the former state of Yugoslavia. Production of
this rifle was undertaken by other nations as well.

AK-Pattern Firearms

AK-pattern firearms, like AR-platform firearms, are popular for machine gun conversions.
Like the AR, the AK is derived from a machine gun, which has been reconfigured into a
semiautomatic rifle by modifying the fire-control parts and changing the receiver design
to deter simple alteration into a machine gun. Like other semiautomatics, this means that
the receiver itself could not have been initially manufactured as a machine gun and simply
reverted to a semiautomatic. The receiver itself must not have been deemed to have been
manufactured as a machine gun in the first place. The receiver may have been constructed
to the standard of a machine gun; however, there are design changes incorporated that
reflect that the receiver in question is not that of a machine gun.

Regardless of where the AK was manufactured, the basic receiver remains the same,
and the same conversion could be effected on practically any standard receiver, regard¬
less of origin. The conversion can be made using a full-auto parts kit that includes the
bolt carrier, sear spring, sear, sear pin, full-auto disconnector, and full-auto hammer.
Semiautomatic AK-pattern receivers lack the hole where the sear pin would be installed that
sets the sear in place in the receiver. This hole is located at the front edge of the magazine

254

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

release. With the safety/selector switch down, the presence of this hole is obscured. As with
the AR-15, an AK receiver that is drilled for the sear is considered a machine gun, regard¬
less of whether there is an auto sear installed or not. On an AK, the combination safety/
selector switch is located on the right side of the receiver. The safe position is the upper¬
most position, regardless of how the receiver is marked. With the safety engaged, the bolt
carrier is physically blocked from traveling to the rear, so the firearm cannot be unloaded,
charged, or otherwise manipulated. An AK capable of fully automatic fire ordinarily will
have three positions on the safety selector. Semiautomatic operation is the third, or lowest,
selected position. The switch center position is the full-auto position. If full-auto parts were
to be substituted for semiautomatic parts, substantial internal modifications would have to
be made to a semiautomatic AK receiver to accomplish a reliable conversion to allow the
receiver to accept the full-auto parts.

Other conversions reconfigure parts to interfere with the marriage between the ham¬
mer and the disconnector as the primary focus. An effective and reliable conversion can
be as simple as taking a wire tie and stuffing it into the crevice in front of the trigger and
twisting it around the sear, thus permitting full-auto operation. Like the AR-15, a drop-in
auto sear (DIAS) exists for an AK-pattern firearm. Like all other conversions, there are
numerous approaches that are only limited to the ingenuity of the person undertaking the
task; thus the particular route that is taken means less than the end result.

There are lawfully possessed AK machine guns in the United States. These examples
take the form of those constructed by licensed manufacturers or dealers. The AKs may
have been constructed domestically, or they could have originated from a foreign source.

Ml Carbine

The World War II-era U.S. Ml carbine (not to be confused with the Ml Garand) was
initially produced as a semiautomatic rifle. During the war, the full-auto M2 carbine was
introduced as a way to upgrade the firepower available to the carbine. M2 carbines were
manufactured as such, but there was also conversion of existing Ml carbines both during
and after the war. U.S. military kits T17 and T18 were issued to convert an Ml into an M2
in the field (see Figures 4.46 and 4.47). Visually, the differences between the Ml and M2 are
almost indiscernible, save for the presence of the selector switch located on the left side of
the receiver ahead of the ejection port and behind the hand guard, opposite the operating
handle. The M1A1 was differentiated by having a folding metal stock for paratrooper use.
Postwar, the designation M3 was also used, the only difference being that the rear sight was
removed and a sight mount installed for use with optics.

These firearms may or may not be marked as M2 or M3 when encountered, and such
markings may be overstrikes or restrikes of the original Ml receiver legend to indicate
modification. M2-style stocks were slightly larger than the original Ml stock to help com¬
pensate for full-auto fire and are notched for the selector switch. An Ml stock would have
to be modified to accommodate the selector switch. To reconfigure an Ml, using origi¬
nal-specification components, into an M2 requires the following parts—selector, selector
spring, selector lever assembly, hammer, and disconnector (including spring and plunger).
Note that there is variation between an Ml and M2 hammer, sear, operating slide, and the
trigger housing (War Department 1947).

A successful conversion of an Ml into a machine gun need not require M2 compo¬
nents as described; one need only understand how the Ml operates and how to go about

Firearms

255

% ^

/Pin-B7161831

Sear-C7161841

Disconnector-C7161837

Hammer-C7161840 Catch-B7161842

Selector-C7161838

'Lever-B7161832
' Rivet-A7161833

RA PD 110808

Figure 4.46 M2 Full Auto Parts diagram. (Source: U.S. Army Technical Manual TM-9-1276.)

modifying the action. Another approach to the conversion process could be successfully
made using some M2 parts, with improvised components making up the balance. A con¬
version using this approach was undertaken where the trigger housing, operating slide,
and the disconnector assembly were of M2 specification. The only part lacking was the
selector switch. A homemade selector switch was fabricated using hardware-store-type
materials. The selector switch was affixed to the right side of the receiver low on the stock,
in contrast to the standard M2 selector, which is positioned on the left side of the receiver
adjacent to the ejection port. In this instance, the homemade selector communicated with
the disconnector lever through a hole drilled in the side of the trigger housing. The end of
the selector that interacted with the disconnector was fashioned into a cam of sorts, which
had the effect of lifting the disconnector lever, hence causing it to override the disconnec¬
tor when engaged. This conversion was identified on a postwar commercial Ml copy, the
Enforcer, manufactured by Iver Johnson (Carr 1992). Aside from the internal modifica¬
tions, the presence of the pronounced switch and stock modification to accommodate it
should give immediate rise to suspicion.

256

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.47 Close-up of the receiver of an M2 carbine manufactured by Inland Manufacturing.
This example was manufactured as an Ml, then later converted to an M2; the receiver mark¬
ings are obscured by the rear sight. Note the selector switch on the left side of the receiver near
the breech. (Image from author's collection.)

Assorted Other Conversions

The author is familiar with a conversion method for a SIG Sauer pistol. Unlike the Glock
full-auto conversion, which fires from a closed bolt when converted as previously described,
the converted SIG operates as an open-bolt machine gun. The conversion process involves
affixing a small-diameter ball bearing to the breech face over the firing-pin hole opening.
The alteration renders the pistol inoperable as a semiautomatic handgun, and the trigger
becomes of no functional value, the pistol is capable of full-auto fire only. To operate, the slide
is locked to the rear, a loaded magazine is inserted, and the slide release is depressed. When
the slide moves forward into battery, a cartridge is fed into the chamber from the magazine,
and when seated in the chamber the affixed ball bearing, now acting as a fixed firing pin,
impacts the primer under the force of the closing slide, causing detonation. The pistol then
cycles, ejecting the spent casing, and then the slide comes forward into battery, again load¬
ing a live cartridge, which again automatically detonates. In this particular conversion, there
is no way to stop the pistol from firing until the ammunition supply is exhausted.

A similar conversion was reported for a Ruger Mark 1.22 pistol. An additional striker
was spot welded or soldered to the breech face. When the slide release was depressed, the
pistol would function as an open-bolt machine gun. This basic conversion method could
conceivably be made on other similar firearms that could be made to function from an
open bolt, although the term open bolt is used somewhat loosely, as functionally there is
no difference. Another similar method of conversion of a pistol to an open-bolt machine
gun is the Walther R38 and its post-war copies. The R38 would appear to be an unlikely
candidate for conversion from a semiautomatic pistol into one capable of functioning as
an automatic weapon. Although the R38 is a full-size-frame pistol constructed of machine
steel, its magazine capacity is a mere eight rounds of 9x19mm ammunition, and there was
no apparent ability to attach any form of stock or support other than the short pistol grip.
A conversion kit, reported to originate from (West) Germany, was available through mail
order during the 1970s and perhaps into the 1980s. The “kit” consisted of a replacement

Firearms

257

firing pin. The instructions called for the disassembly of the P.38 slide by removing the
stock firing pin and installing the replacement. The conversion is completed by invert¬
ing the slide stop lever spring located underneath the left grip panel. In theory, the safety/
decocker could act as a selector switch, or the firing pin could be fixed and, once again, you
have an open-bolt machine gun.

Colt 1911 and 1911A1

Colt experimented with machine gun variants of the 1911/1911A1 pistol, likely in the 1920s
and 1930s. Full-auto handguns were quite popular in that era, and it is perfectly logical for
Colt to have followed up with their own design for one of the most popular handguns then in
existence to counter competitors’ machine pistols, especially from Germany. John Dillinger
is reported to have used or at least possessed a Colt 1911 machine pistol, purportedly cham¬
bered in .38 Super. The pistol had a vertical fore grip resembling that from a Thompson
submachine gun and an extended magazine. It is unclear whether the firearm had been con¬
verted or was originally manufactured as a machine gun by Colt. The modification would be
quite simple, and many 1911 frames have inadvertently been made into machine guns while
performing a trigger job. As with all conversions, there are several schools of thought, includ¬
ing the construction of an auxiliary trigger that is part of a vertical fore grip, as well as typi¬
cal modifications to the trigger and sear. Fixing the firing pin and using the slide release as
the trigger has also been contemplated, as in the case of the previously described SIG pistol.
Examples of full-auto Colt 1911 machine pistols purporting to be factory made as such are
said to exist. Machine gun variants of the basic 1911 likely existed in foreign versions of the
handgun as well, either as factory work or by conversion after manufacture.

Browning Hi Power

In 1978, a method of converting the Browning Hi Power was brought to light. The conver¬
sion was accomplished by replacing the stock sear with a longer replacement (the original
is 1 5/8" replaced by one that is 1 3 A"), which gives the replacement sear sufficient reach to
remain in constant contact with the trigger lever. As long as the sear remains in contact
with the trigger, and the trigger is depressed, then fire will be sustained until the ammuni¬
tion supply is exhausted. Such a converted pistol suffers the same malady as other full-auto
pistols: a very high rate of fire with extreme muzzle climb and controllability issues. The
other functional issue is that the magazine safety is defeated by the alteration and is ren¬
dered inoperable (Zahn 1978).

This report was followed up with another in April 1981, where another method of con¬
verting the Hi Power had been unearthed. In this conversion, the forward travel of the trigger
lever is inhibited by the insertion of an L-shaped piece of steel forward of the trigger lever.
The additional part seats into the pistol without need for modification to the firearm whatso¬
ever and no tools are required to install or remove. The exemplar firearm had been modified
by way of increasing the size of the ejection port by milling an angled portion of the slide
away (Zahn 1981). As with the previous conversion, the magazine safety feature is inoperable
when this modification is affected. This should come as no surprise, given that the safety
works on a plunger that is attached to the trigger and is pressed against an inserted magazine,
or relieved when no magazine is inserted. It is interesting to contemplate if these conversions
were inspired by someone trying to engineer a trigger enhancement on the Hi Power by
altering the magazine safety, which affects the trigger press. It seems unlikely that a select-fire

258

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

version of the Hi Power would never have been manufactured, since full-auto handguns were
very much in style in the 1930s when the Hi Power came to market. It also seems unlikely
that select-fire Hi Powers were not manufactured, even if by a third party, and that such
examples were registered before the 1986 machine gun ban took effect in the United States.

Early examples of the Hi Power had a slot in the grip back strap to attach a shoulder
stock, turning the Hi Power into a carbine, which would have enhanced the controllability
of the pistol as a machine gun to a certain extent. An interesting historical footnote of the
Hi Power was that it was used concurrently by both the Allied and Axis forces during the
Second World War. During German occupation of Belgium, the Hi Power continued to be
manufactured by Fabrique Nationale, with German military forces absorbing all output. On
the Allied side, the Hi Power was manufactured by Inglis in Canada and was issued to the
Commonwealth Forces. Nazi Hi Powers carry the Nazi proof mark, showing an eagle over
the legend “WaA140” as well as firing proof showing the eagle and swastika; these markings
are clustered together on the left side of the receiver and frame, but variations to this practice
can be found. Otherwise, the Nazi Hi Power carries the standard Browning slide legend. Hi
Powers manufactured by John Inglis in Canada are generally marked “Inglis” “Canada,” and
“Browning.” Another marking that maybe observed is the British model designation, “MK.I.”

Marlin/Glenfield Model 60

A seemingly innocuous firearm, so far as full-auto conversions are concerned, is the Marlin/
Glenfield Model 60, a semiautomatic .22 rifle fed from a tubular magazine. Introduction of
a foreign object into the bolt such as a toothpick or a similarly sized object has the effect of
fixing the firing pin in place. When the bolt hold-open latch is released, the force of impact
of the bolt (with fixed firing pin) will detonate the chambered cartridge and continue
cycling the action until the ammunition supply has been exhausted. In this type of conver¬
sion, there is no way to stop the gun from firing, and the factory trigger plays no role. Such
a condition is called a runaway gun. Once again, the remanufacture of a firearm may cause
components to have to be technically redefined. The trigger may no longer act as such, the
function of the trigger being assigned the bolt or slide release, which could be defined as
the trigger because, from a technical standpoint, that component is now fulfilling that role
on the firearm. Other firearms that are commonly encountered as conversions include
the Ruger Mini-14 and 10/22 as well as the UZI. In theory, any semiautomatic firearm is a
candidate for modification or tinkering to effect the successful and reliable conversion, so
methods described in converting other firearms serve as a general guideline to potential
avenues taken in converting other semiautomatics.

STEN Gun

The STEN gun was developed in England during World War II as an expedient mass-
production submachine gun. The STEN was designed from the outset to be rapidly manu¬
factured using minimal facilities, basic materials, and by nearly anyone following basic
instructions. The STEN was chambered in 9x19mm and was fed ammunition from a
detachable box magazine. The magazine well was attached to the receiver and fed rather
unusually to the side of the gun. The STEN operated by blowback, firing from an open bolt
and having a fixed firing pin on the face of the breech block. Aside from the breech block
assembly, the only other part in the tubular receiver was the recoil spring. The cocking

Firearms

259

handle was attached to the breech block and traveled along a channel cut in the receiver;
a safety notch was provided. The barrel screwed into the barrel nut at the front of the
receiver, and is easily removed and replaced. The trigger group was welded to the bottom
of the receiver and one of several crude butt stocks attached.

Some 4 million STEN guns were produced during the war in England and Canada, and
they were widely distributed even well into the postwar era. Many nations even produced
their own versions postwar. There are lawfully possessed STEN guns in the United States, but
there are likely many contraband wartime examples lying around as well. Untold numbers
of demilled STEN gun parts kits were imported into the United States until the practice was
discontinued. Per ATF regulation, the receivers were cut up and rendered useless, but the
remainder of the assemblies—the stock, barrel, barrel nut, trigger-housing and firing-train
components, magazine housing and its associated parts, and the breech block and its associ¬
ated parts—were left intact. Many STEN gun parts are newly manufactured, so having a vin¬
tage parts kit is really not necessary to complete the repair, restoration, or the build. Surplus
wartime magazines—often unissued and still in period wrapper—remain readily available.

The STEN gun remains a popular machine gun to fabricate because of its simplicity.
Using a parts kit, a new receiver can be fashioned from seamless metal tubing and the rest
of the parts assembled onto this new receiver. STEN gun receiver templates are readily
available for purchase. These templates consist of a seamless metal tube that is covered
by a wrapping onto which the template is printed. The template provides the builder with
instructions on where to cut material away, drill holes, and perform other manufacturing
operations to complete a receiver that is ready for assembly. The final product is at least as
good as wartime production.

If not for the actual construction of a STEN gun, the study of constructing such a
device, coupled with an understanding of the principle and method of operation—being a
straight blowback, open bolt, firing pin fixed to the breech automatic weapon—makes for
an interesting case study. Certainly, the features of the STEN gun have served as an inspi¬
ration, or perhaps indirectly, even a teaching guide.

Determining if a STEN gun is a vintage example or newly manufactured requires care¬
ful evaluation. It was the wartime marking practice to place on the magazine housing the
manufacturer information and serial number. Another serial number could appear on the
barrel nut; however, these vintage parts could be donors from a parts kit. The best chance
lies in examining the receiver to see if the material is marked by a manufacturer or the mate¬
rial type is identified. If the receiver is finished, it may be necessary to remove the finishing
material to ascertain if modern material markings are present. Another possibility is to
ascertain if parts on the exhibit are newly minted or vintage, but once again, the question
focuses squarely on the receiver and determining whether it is contemporary or vintage.
STEN machine guns could be original wartime pieces, in which case the original markings
would apply. Other possibilities include a “tube gun,” where the receiver would be marked
by the manufacturer with their information and a serial number, or a reactivated machine
gun, which again would require manufacturer information to be conspicuously marked.

Devices Designed to Simulate Fully Automatic Firing

In an attempt to increase the rate of fire of a semiautomatic firearm without manufacturing
a machine gun, one approach that has been taken involves external devices that are affixed
to the firearm but are not mechanical modifications, additions, or contrivances to the

260

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

action itself. In general, these devices are designed to take advantage of an action that has
come to be broadly known as bump fire. Bump fire is taking advantage of the reciprocation
(forward motion) of the firearm action after recoil has taken place to assist the shooter in
manipulating the trigger in a manner that is much faster than one could manually manipu¬
late a trigger in the absence of such a device. The increased rate of trigger press translates
to an increased rate of fire, although the firearm continues to discharge a single shot per
press of the trigger. In effect, the trigger finger remains stationary in space while the fire¬
arm moves forward, reinitiating the firing train as soon as the action is physically capable
of doing so. The bump-fire concept need not necessarily require an attachment; a shooter
can attempt bump fire by simply stacking fingers inside the trigger guard of a firearm and
pushing the firearm into the “finger stack” with the nonshooting hand. Theoretically, as
fast as the shooter can push the firearm into the awaiting fingers, discharge will take place.
From a practical standpoint, this is not always possible due to the ergonomics of certain
firearms and the relative safety factor of controlling aim and fire while wildly pushing for¬
ward the firearm as fast as possible. These add-on devices, as described, are merely ways of
accomplishing the same effort while permitting a more conventional shooting style to be
observed. Audibly, such an equipped firearm does sound as if a fully automatic weapon is
being discharged, and visually it would appear the same, although from a purely technical
point of view, the trigger is still being manipulated in a semiautomatic mode.

Methods to take advantage of the bump-fire principle have emerged in the form of stocks
and attachments to firearms whereby the operator merely has to hold onto the firearm, press
the trigger, and the attachment does the rest. Devices such as the Hell Fire, Hell Storm,
Trigger Activator, and the Akins Accelerator, all functionally synonymous, are designed to
accelerate the manual trigger manipulation to mimic fully automatic fire by employing the
bump-fire technique. However, because they are mechanical devices, they were deemed to be
machine gun components in 2006 by the BATFE (Sullivan 2006). Furthermore, homemade
analogs of such devices constructed of basic materials such as wooden dowel rods, plywood,
rubber bands, and the like, are fashioned into bump-fire devices by those attempting to fab¬
ricate their own. These contrivances are also declared machine gun components inasmuch as
their affixing to a firearm is an attempt to modulate the rate of fire. More recent attempts at
capitalizing on bump fire focus on stocks and other non-mechanical devices, which, for the
time being, have not been declared machine guns or machine gun components. The bump-
fire principle is an example of the regulatory cat-and-mouse game that is played between
the authorities who regulate firearms and the tinkerers and inventors looking to find ways
around and through those same regulations. In this case, the intent is to create a firearm that
mimics the behavior of a machine gun without actually manufacturing one.

Firearm Receiver

In the United States, the part of a firearm that is legally controlled is the frame or receiver.
The frame or receiver is the base to which all other parts are assembled when a firearm is
constructed. A frame/receiver is required to bring together the collection of parts to form
a functional firearm; without the frame/receiver, there is no firearm. What is considered
the actual frame or receiver varies from firearm to firearm, but generally it is the part that
encompasses where the ammunition is fed as well as where the fire-control parts are, but
there are always exceptions.

Firearms

261

Figure 4.48 Regardless of whose name ends up stamped on the receiver as the manufacturer
of record, most AR-15/M16 lower receivers start off as an aluminum forging (the same is true
for the upper receivers as well). The example on top is ready to make operational and only needs
the internal parts to operate; the forging shown on the bottom is the legal equivalent of a paper
weight and is not considered a receiver at this stage of manufacture. AR receivers can be made of
carbon fiber or other metals, but aluminum remains prevalent. (Image from author's collection.)

A revolver frame is the part that all the other parts are attached to. The barrel is seated
into the frame; the cylinder is attached to the frame by the yoke. Pistol receivers are the
part that encompasses the grip and what the slide attaches to.

Shotguns and rifles with single-piece receivers are the part that all the other parts
attach to. Firearms with two-piece receivers, an upper and lower, will be model specific. In
the case of AR-pattern firearms and their variants, the lower receiver, which encompasses
the grip, magazine well, trigger, and the fire control parts, is the firearm. Conversely, in the
case of firearms such as the FN-CAL, FN-FAL, LI A1 (British variant of the FN-FAL), H&K
G.3 and MP-5 and variants, and the FN SCAR 16 and 17, the upper portion is considered
the receiver, which does not include the trigger pack.

In the case of belt-fed firearms, whether they are machine guns or semiautomatic cop¬
ies, the side plate is considered the receiver. The Browning M2, M1917, M1918, M1919 (all
variants), and Maxim/Vickers-pattern firearms all represent examples where the right side
plate represents the actual receiver. The slide plate is literally affixed to the receiver box. An
incomplete build, that is, one not having the side plate attached, could be mistaken to be the
actual firearm, since it physically appears to be complete. Since the side plate is the receiver,
this piece is where all markings are mandated to be affixed, but that would not exclude
the potential for identifying markings on other parts if the article in question is a vintage
machine gun that has “come out of the woodwork” or a newly minted receiver that has been
assembled into a lawful firearm using surplus parts to finish assembling the firearm.

ATF Ruling 97-2 defined the 1919A-4 semiautomatic firearm and 1919A-6 semiauto¬
matic rifle to be classified as “portable firearms,” despite the fact that each weapon weighs

262

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

approximately 30 pounds and is approximately 54 inches in length. The significance of
the ruling was regulatory in nature and had nothing to do with the function of either
described firearm (BATFE 1997).

There are venues outside the United States that control any component used in the con¬
struction of a firearm and consider them the same as a receiver, including barrels, slides,
magazines, and trigger assemblies. The SIG Sauer P250 is a unique pistol that permits the
user to create two firearms from a single frame. The definition of frame/receiver in this
instance is a little flexed, as the actual receiver is the mechanical assembly that sits within
the full- or compact-sized grip; the user converts the assembly at will. In the case of the
SIG P250, the mechanical assembly insert is serial numbered, but displayed through a
windowed portion of either frame.

Incomplete receivers may be encountered. Figure 4.48 depicts a incomplete receiver
and a finished receiver. Typically, these incomplete receivers are manufactured to 80%,
requiring an additional 20% of work to become a functional firearm. The 80% receiver kits
are not firearms or receivers per se, at least in the sense that they are not “readily made to
function,” inasmuch as some work processes remain to finish the project. These receivers
may take the form of template covered work pieces such as tubular receivers, side plates,
forgings and castings, and so forth.

DEWATS, Unserviceable Firearms, and Inert Firearms

The term DEWAT stands for DEactivated WAr Trophy. The definition of a DEWAT has
changed significantly in the last 60 years. Traditionally, a DEWAT firearm was one that
was rendered inert by some modification such as removing the bolt, grinding off the fir¬
ing pin, and plugging the barrel with lead. As such modifications are reversible, they are
no longer considered to be acceptable to legally define a firearm as deactivated, since fire¬
arms so modified could be readily restored to function. A firearm that is a DEWAT using
reversible methods could still be construed as a firearm and must be permanently rendered
inoperable for it to be definable as a nongun.

An unserviceable firearm is one that is incapable of operating as a firearm; it cannot
discharge a projectile nor is it readily restored to a condition that would permit it to oper¬
ate as a firearm. An unserviceable firearm has been substantially modified to render it
useless and unserviceable, such as welding the receiver shut. Such measures may be taken
to preserve a firearm that is of some interest, historical or otherwise, but due to legalities,
possession of the firearm in question is prohibited.

In contrast, an inert firearm or nongun is one that has had the receiver removed and
replaced with a dummy receiver (see Figure 4.49). Actual firearms parts such as the stock,
barrel, and such can then be installed onto the dummy receiver. A typical dummy receiver
cosmetically resembles a functional receiver, perhaps even to include markings and a few
operable features such as cocking handle, trigger, and safety switches, but there are no
internal parts and hence the article is not considered a firearm.

Manufacturers

Throughout the history of firearms, there have been many manufacturers ranging from
individual gun makers in small shops to industrial conglomerates. Some of the oldest

Firearms

263

Figure 4.49 This piece would appear to be a World War II-era German MP.40 9x19mm sub¬
machine gun; however, it is, in fact, a nongun dummy. It is very convincingly manufactured
of metal and plastic components; the magazine is removable; and the charging handle and trig¬
ger are functional. It is even marked in the wartime manner with code ayf (ERMA = Erfurter
Maschinenfabrik B. Geipel), dated 1940, and bears a serial number. Such analogs can easily be
mistaken for a real firearm. (Image from author's collection.)

industrial corporations in existence are gun makers. Most industrial gun makers got their
start as sole proprietorships, partnerships, family businesses, or unified trade guilds as
evidenced by their names—Colt, Mauser, Beretta, Walther, Smith & Wesson, FN Herstal,
and the like.

It is impractical to try to publish a record of firearm manufacturers, as companies
come and go all the time, and such a list would rapidly become obsolete. Alongside the
long-recognized names of gun makers, there have been many companies that entered the
arms business. Some entered under lucrative government contracts in times of conflict.
Others were collectivized and forced into the industry under the duress of the political
system under which they existed or came to exist. Many nations operate or did operate
state-controlled arsenals that solely filled the military obligations of that nation and its
partners, but often sold weapons commercially. Many nations never developed an indig¬
enous armaments manufacturing base, instead choosing to purchase their weapons from
the establishments of Europe and the United States. As with all industries, not every com¬
pany will survive, and many nameplates have fallen into bankruptcy and disappeared
from the market. Firearms, however, have no real life expectancy, and thus even the oldest
firearms from a long-forgotten nameplate can reappear when discovered in barns, chests,
closets, drawers, and other places where they were laid and then forgotten. Many of these
names are not readily recognized as firearms manufacturers. In addition, there are his¬
torical nameplates that may create some confusion on the part of the person coming into
contact with a firearm.

The United States operated several arsenals that manufactured martial firearms, par¬
ticularly rifles designed by government employees or designs purchased by the government.
The last, Springfield Arsenal, closed in 1968. Despite the output from several U.S. govern¬
ment arsenals, the demands for firearms and the availability of the private industrial base
led the federal government to subcontract manufacturing to any firm willing to bid on the
work. As a result, U.S. military firearms can be found having been manufactured either
by government arsenals or by a diversity of private firms. For example, Browning-pattern
machine guns were manufactured by various divisions of General Motors, including A/C
Spark Plug in Flint, Michigan, the Brown-Lipe-Chapin Plant of the Guide Lamp Division
in Syracuse, New York, and the Frigidaire Division in Dayton, Ohio. The M3 submachine

264

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

gun, nicknamed the “Grease Gun,” was manufactured by the Guide Lamp Division. M1903
rifles were manufactured by the government arsenals at Rock Island and Springfield, and
were later supplemented by production from Remington Arms and L.C. Smith Corona. Ml
Garand rifles were manufactured by the U.S. government arsenal at Springfield, but were
joined by International Harvester, Harrington & Richardson, and Winchester Repeating
Arms. New England Westinghouse and Remington Arms were contracted to manufacture
Russian Mosin Nagant 1891 rifles for the Russian Tsarist government during World War
I, although many were apparently never delivered and ended up back in the hands of the
U.S. government.

Brand names are often the result of acronyms and abbreviation formed from the physi¬
cal location of the manufacturer, cofounders names, or other pieces of information, espe¬
cially true with Italian and Spanish firms.

Historically, Spanish gun makers have been concentrated around the city of Eibar.
Since many Spanish-sourced firearms came into the United States before comprehen¬
sive regulations that standardized marking practices, Spanish nameplates can be very
confusing, which is compounded by the large number of firms that operated, especially
during the 1920s and 1930s. The Spanish firm Astra was formerly known as Unceta y
Cia and includes references to Eibar, Campo Giro, and Esperanza y Unceta, names used
during different eras. Other Spanish manufacturers include Garate, Anitua, y Cia (GAC);
Azanza y Arrizabalaga (who primarily copied Browning-pattern pistols); shotgun maker
Arrieta S.I.; pistol maker Star Bonifacio Echeverria (often just known as “Star”); Tomas
de Urizar y Cia (probably best known for the Velo-Dog brand revolvers) used a plurality
of different names, retaining references to Eibar or Barcelona in some instances; Armas
Garbi; Aguirre y Aranzabal (AYA); Alkartasuna Fabrica De Armas Guernica; Arana y
Cia; Arizaga Eusebio; Hijos de Victor Aramberri; Francisco Arizmendi (trademark was a
crest with FA over a five-point star); and Apaolozo Hermanos, located in Zumarraga, near
Eibar. The Spanish gun maker Gabilondo y Cia, in Elgoibar, Spain, markets guns under
the name Llama. The name Francisco Ascaso was associated with a Spanish revolutionary
personality, and an unofficial handgun was made using his name as the model on Astra
machinery. The majority of Spanish pistols are copies of the Colt 1911 or other similar
small-frame Browning-pattern automatics, although Spanish firms did develop their own
designs.

Brescia, Italy, is the home of numerous Italian gun makers, particularly those who
specialize in cartridge and black powder antique replicas of American revolvers. Firms
based in Brescia include Rigarmi di Rino Galesi (RAG); Fabricca Armi Pietta, whose focus
is black powder reproductions of classic firearms; Armi San Marco; Armi San Paolo and
Vincenzo Bernardelli, manufacturer of shotguns, rifles, and the Model 68 pistol. Gardone
Valtrompia is another hub of Italian gun making. Gardone is home to the world’s oldest
gun maker Pietro Beretta, or more officially Fabbrica D’Armi Pietro Beretta S.p.A. F.lli.;
Poli Armi (Fratelli Poli), manufacturer of fine sporting shotguns; FAMARS (Fabrica Armi
Mario Abiaticco e Remo Salvinelli); and Angelo Zoli, another sporting arms manufacturer
in Gardone. Gardone-based gun maker Angelo Zoli went out of business in the late 1980s.
Other firms are scattered about Italy, such as Armi Tecniche de Emilio Rizzini, which is
located in Marcheno, and Chiappa Azzano (branded as Armi Sport, Kimar) in Kimar.

The Russian arsenal MOLOT is an acronym for Vjayskiye Poljany Arsenal. The
Russian arsenal Izhevsky is often confused with Izhmash, the two words being somewhat
similar. Izhmash is a separate entity that continues to manufacture weapons for military

Firearms

265

and commercial markets. Izhevsky, or Izhevsky Mekhanichesky Zavod, or now just
Izhmech, was privatized in 1994, using the name Baikal to market products commercially.
The Baikal pistol was one of the first Russian-sourced firearms to enter the United States
through commercial channels, and was simply called the “Baikal” and less often referred
to as the Model IJ-70, although it was actually just the standard Russian Makarov pis¬
tol. Makarov-pattern pistols have been imported from East Germany, China, Poland, and
other Eastern Bloc nations. Russian arms can generally be found with the arsenal marking
on the receiver. Often the date will be stamped on the receiver as well; the character r pre¬
cedes the year and is apparently a Russian abbreviation for year.

Manufacture by Multiple Firms

Firearms designed by one firm may have been manufactured by another, as in the case of
the Browning BDA (Browning Double Action). The BDA slide legend can be quite confus¬
ing. There are several variations of markings, some showing Fabrique Nationale Herstal
but “Made In Italy”; others bear the Beretta trademark on the right side of the slide and
the FN reference is not present. This anomaly is due to the pistol being manufactured by
Beretta under contract from FN, who designed the handgun but apparently never actu¬
ally manufactured it. Some variations have the Browning B medallion on the original fac¬
tory grips, yet others bear the Browning buck-head logo. Aftermarket grips are frequently
seen on this pistol. On the left side of the slide is the importer information for examples
imported through routine channels into the United States, e.g., “Browning Arms Company
Morgan, Utah & Montreal P.O.” The Browning BDA was chambered in .380 ACP. Another
pistol, also called the Browning BDA, available in .45 ACP or 9x19mm, is essentially the
SIG P220. This variation is distinguished by the markings on the front edge of the right
side of the slide: “SIG-Sauer System Made In West Germany.” The left side of the slide, also
toward the muzzle, is marked: “Browning Arms Co. Morgan, Utah & Montreal P.O.” The
factory-installed grips are marked BROWNING.

There have been many firms that have engaged in commercial firearms manufacture
through the modern era, and comparatively few survive to the present day. Occasionally
an old nameplate will be resurrected. Each name has its own history, which is often quite
extensive and largely outside the purview of the firearm examiner. These companies often
changed names to reflect new ownership, consolidation with another firm, or a restructur¬
ing. This information can be significant if the time period of when a specific firearm was
manufactured is important, but for the most part it is largely irrelevant to the examiner
except for historical collector appraisal and conversational purposes.

Historical Footnotes on Older, Common Nameplates
Iver Johnson

Iver Johnson was founded in 1871 as Johnson, Bye, and Company. In 1883, it was renamed
Iver Johnson and Company. In 1891, the company relocated to Fitchburg, Massachusetts,
from Worcester, Massachusetts, and was renamed again to the Iver Johnson Gun & Cycle
Works, where it remained for the better part of a century. In 1973, Iver Johnson, now

266

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

known as Iver Johnson’s Arms Inc., acquired the Plainfield Machine Company of New
Jersey and moved to Middlesex, New Jersey In 1983, the company relocated once again
to Jacksonville, Arkansas, and purchased Universal Firearms, which was Iver Johnson’s
biggest competitor at the time, producing commercial versions of the U.S. military Ml
carbine. By 1986, the company was in bankruptcy, and it was acquired and reorganized a
couple of times through 1993, when it again shut down (Royal Canadian Mounted Police
2011). In 2004, the name was resurrected as a new Florida-based corporation called Iver
Johnson Arms, Inc., but with no ties to the former organization. The new company manu¬
factures 1911-frame handguns and a slide-action shotgun. The new company website indi¬
cates that it is entering into production a multibarreled derringer-type pistol and, once
again, an Ml carbine. The company also reports it has produced new receivers to fit onto
surplus FN Browning pistol parts, chambered in .25 ACP (Iver Johnson Arms n.d.).

Marlin Firearms

Marlin Firearms was founded in 1879 by John M. Marlin, who was employed by Colt at one
time. John Marlin was an innovator and developed his own line of firearms. In 1915, the
company was acquired from the Marlin family and renamed Marlin Rockwell Corp., which
was broken into two business units: a commercial and sporting division (Marlin Firearms
Corp. n.d.) and a military products division. The sporting company folded in 1923, was
acquired at auction, and renamed the Marlin Firearms Co. Marlin was a large supplier of
small arms and small arms components during both world wars. In 2000, Marlin acquired
the H&R 1871 name, which included Harrington & Richardson, New England Firearms,
and Wesson & Harrington. In 2007, Marlin and its holdings were acquired by Remington
Arms of Ilion, New York. Marlin Firearms is currently a holding of the Freedom Group
(Marlin Firearms n.d.).

Harrington & Richardson

This company was founded in 1871 by the formation of a partnership between Gilbert
Harrington and Frank Wesson as Wesson & Harrington. The name was changed in 1875
to Harrington & Richardson. In 1888, the name was again changed to Harrington &
Richardson Arms Company, Inc. Harrington & Richardson expanded from their plant in
Worcester, Massachusetts, to facilities in Gardner and Rockdale, both in Massachusetts,
and even briefly expanded into Canada. The company was awarded numerous contracts
during both world wars to produce firearms, and was awarded contracts postwar to manu¬
facture the M14 and the M16 on behalf of the United States. This success did not remain,
and the company folded in 1986. In 1987, New England Firearms came into being and
operated from the Gardner facility. In 1991, H&R 1871 was formed, but this has no ties to
the original company (Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2011). In 2000, the company was
acquired by Marlin and still produces firearms as part of the Freedom Group under the
names New England Firearms, H&R 1871, and Harrington & Richardson (H&R 1871).

High Standard

The High Standard Manufacturing Co. was started in 1926 in New Haven, Connecticut, but
did not start producing firearms until 1932. Around 1940, the name was again changed to

Firearms

267

High Standard Manufacturing Corp., Inc. The company moved several times throughout
Connecticut until it closed its doors in 1984. In 1993, the company relocated to Houston,
Texas, and has since acquired AMT-Auto Mag’ and has “affiliated itself with Interarms and
US Cartridge” (High Standard Manufacturing Company 2010). At present, the company
produces a number of pistols of AMT and prior High Standard models, 1911 model pistols,
as well as AR- and AK-pattern rifles. The AK rifles are branded as Interarms.

Savage Arms

Savage Arms shotguns and rifles were sold under the private brand names Aldens (Chieftan);
Belknap; Canadian Industries Ltd. (C.I.L.); Coast to Coast; Cotter & Co.; Gamble Skogmo,
Inc. (Hiawatha); Simmons (Quail Fargo); and Talo (Golden West). The J. Stevens Firearms
Co. became a subsidiary of Savage Arms in 1920; the two names are essentially inter¬
changeable, as are their products after this date. The name Springfield is associated with
the Savage/Stevens Co. Prior to 1968, J. Stevens manufactured arms under the name Acme
Arms Co. Crescent Firearms appeared as the American Gun Co. and Armory Gun Co.
Smith & Wesson marketed a slide-action shotgun under the name Eastfield.

Firearms Imports Si Exports

Firearms Imports & Exports, simply known as F.I.E., imported vast numbers of inex¬
pensive revolvers, pistols, and shotguns into the United States until the company went
into bankruptcy in 1990. The handguns in particular are frequently encountered by law
enforcement. F.I.E. imported either complete firearms or various components used to con¬
struct firearms on frames and receivers produced in the United States by F.I.E., and quite
often the formal manufacturer or source nation is not readily identified. As a general rule,
F.I.E. suffices as identification of the manufacturer, unless it is clearly discerned that the
company acted only as the importing agent and there is some evidence contained on the
firearm that conclusively indicates otherwise.

Titan, an F.I.E. subsidiary, manufactured receivers that were mated to Italian-
sourced slides, barrels, and other parts to construct the Titan series of pistols, including
the Titan, Titan II, and Titan 25. The Titan slide marking, indicating “Made In Italy,” can
be easily misunderstood to believe that the firearm itself is completely of Italian origin,
and the marking was simply a matter of having enough real estate to affix the stamping
there, but this is not the case. F.I.E. also participated in the manufacture of the Titan
Tiger revolver.

Certain revolvers marked F.I.E. may be mistaken for Rohm- or RG-pattern guns,
as they are overtly very similar in appearance. Some Hermann Weihrauch (Germany)-
sourced revolvers were imported by F.I.E., as well as black powder single-action revolvers
from Tangfolio, Riva Esterina, and Luciano Giacosa of Italy, and shotguns by Maroccini.
Other shotguns have been sourced from Brazilian makers Companhia Brasileira Cartuchos
(CBC) and ER Amantino & Cia. Spanish sources included shotguns from Aguirre y

AMT was formerly called Arcadia Machine and Tool and was located in Irwindale, California, prior to
its acquisition.

268

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Aranzabal (AYA) and Unceta y Cia, which was formerly known as Esperanza y Unceta but
is perhaps better known as Astra, located in Eibar, Spain.

RG Industries

RG Industries has produced another series of firearms that are often difficult to identify.
The name Rohm is also often used to identify this brand. RG is an abbreviation for Rohm
Gesellschaft, the German firm that manufactured these small, inexpensive firearms and
exported them into the United States. It seems probable that RG Industries was established
to continue the production of Rohm-pattern firearms in response to the 1968 Gun Control
Act, which would have prohibited further importation of the RG brand.

RG Industries in Miami produced finished firearms using components supplied to
them by the German factory. Receivers marked “Rohm,” “Germany,” and bearing German
proof marks were imported into the United States before 1968. U.S.-manufactured receiv¬
ers will be conspicuously marked “RG Industries” per Federal requirements. RG Industries
in Miami apparently commenced manufacturing activities in the early 1970s and remained
in business until the mid-1980s, when it was litigated out of business.

In most instances, RG and Rohm both appear on the firearm, the RG logo appearing
on the grip panels and Rohm generally marked on the receiver or barrel. All Rohm- or
RG-named firearms used a model number with an RG prefix followed by a two- or three-
digit letter/number combination. Revolvers included the .22 revolvers RG14, RG14S, and
the RG23. The RG30 revolver was available as a .22 LR or Magnum, or in .32 S&W. The
RG31 revolver was chambered in either .32 S&W or .38 Special. The RG38, RG39, and RG40
were only available in .38 Special. Two derringers were manufactured: the .22 Magnum
RG16 and the .38 Special RG17. Automatic pistols were the RG25 (likely named because it
was chambered in .25 ACP) and the RG26 (also in .25 ACP). RG copied a prior pistol design
from Erma Werke, Model RG42, also chambered in .25 ACP. For all practical purposes,
identification of any of the products as an RG or a “Rohm pattern” would likely suffice.

The Rohm brand became somewhat synonymous in defining the term Saturday night
special, which was meant to mean any inexpensive firearm, but the term has evolved to
take the meaning of any firearm that has a criminal following. The RG14 holds a place in
history as one of the most notorious guns of all time: John Hinckley used the model in his
attempt to assassinate the late former President Ronald Reagan.

Hermann Weihrauch

Hermann Weihrauch was a German arms maker. Although Weihrauch was the actual
manufacturer, the company branded their products using several different names, includ¬
ing Arminius, Burgo, and Fabico. The Arminius brand is accompanied by a warrior wearing
a winged helmet stamped on the frame. Most Herman Weihrauch firearms models start
with an HW prefix, but this would exclude arms dating back to the prewar and Second
World War era. As discussed in the section on Firearms Imports & Exports (F.I.E.), the two
companies collaborated as manufacturers and later exporters to the United States. German-
produced arms can be expected to have German proof marks. The majority of postwar
Weihrauch firearms are small- to mid-caliber revolvers. The company has produced vanity
firearms on behalf of European American Armory (EAA) and Herter’s. Aside from tradi¬
tional powder firearms, Weihrauch is also a well-known manufacturer of precision air guns.

Firearms

269

Department Store Firearms

Commonly encountered shotguns and rifles are those once sold through department
stores, mail-order catalogs, and general stores. In the United States prior to 1968, it was
possible to mail order firearms from a retailer and have it shipped directly to a residence by
U.S. mail, and many catalog sales retailers marketed guns in this way. When encountered,
such shotguns and rifles frequently only bear the name of the retailer that sold the arm,
not the company that actually manufactured the article. Many gun makers manufactured
department store guns under contract for the retailers, and these firearms were not unique
or specific patterns for the retailer. Instead, they were often basic versions of firearms that
these manufacturers were already producing. These firearms were well-built, quality weap¬
ons, but they would have lacked excessively fancy finishes or high grades of wood. Instead,
they were focused on providing a basic, utilitarian tool at the best possible price.

Any student of twentieth-century shotguns and small-caliber rifles who can read¬
ily identify cornerstone models by such firms as Mossberg, Marlin, Stevens/Savage, and
Winchester would have no problem identifying the department store equivalents, as they
are exactly the same gun. The majority of department-store-branded firearms lack serial
numbers, and it is for this reason that they are virtually untraceable. Occasionally an exam¬
ple will appear that has a name, address, or some other form of personal information etched
onto it, even if the information is archaic. It is a common mistake to identify the part or
inventory number as a serial number on these firearms. Some examples carry a stock num¬
ber, which is typically located on the barrel and ordinarily takes the form of a series of let¬
ters or numbers that would identify the manufacturer to the retailer, but this information
would not be relatable to the casual observer; it would simply appear as a model. In certain
instances, model numbers may coincide between the retailer and the actual manufacturer.

Sears & Roebuck

Sears used the private brand names Eastern Arms, Norwich Arms, J.C. Higgins, Ranger
(see Figure 4.50), and Ted Williams when they sold firearms, and the firearms were so
marked by the particular brand name. Sears-branded firearms can be traced to the original
manufacturer using the stock number. The pattern used by Sears was a two- or three-digit

Figure 4.50 A Sears brand Ranger shotgun. Above the trigger is the stock number, in this case
102.25, which would indicate the actual manufacturer as J. Stevens/Savage Arms. (Image from
author's collection.)

270

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Table 4.2 Sears Brand Firearms Cross-Reference Table

Stock Number

Manufacturer

Marlin Firearms Co.

J. Stevens Firearms Co. (operating as a division of Savage Arms)

Savage Arms (may be marked as Springfield)

20,21

High Standard Manufacturing Co.

J. Stevens Firearms Co.

Savage Arms

Marlin Firearms Co.

J. Stevens Firearms Co.

Browning Arms

J.C. Higgins or High Standard

Savage Arms

High Standard Manufacturing Co.

High Standard (J.C. Higgins) .22 revolver

97, 98, 101

Savage Arms

102

J. Stevens Firearms Co./Savage Arms

103

Marlin Firearms Co.

104, 105

Harrington & Richardson

121

Universal Arms

153

Laurona Arms (Spain)

200

Winchester Repeating Arms

201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210,

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

212,213

234

Savage Arms

273

Olin Corp. (Winchester Western Division)

281

Antonio Zoli Arms Co. (Italy)

282

Companhia Brasileira de Cartouches (CBC)

340

Ithaca Gun Co.

390, 400, 401, 402, 404, 405, 414, 420, 446,

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

447, 448, 449, 455, 458, 465, 467, 468,

472, 474, 483, 484, 486, 487, 488, 489, 491

583

High Standard Manufacturing Co.

667

J. Stevens Firearms Co.

684

Winchester Repeating Arms

870

Voere, Austria

Sources: (Thompson 1978; LaVoy 1979; Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2011; Rosenberg 1972).

number followed by a period, then a sequence of numbers that indicated the stock number,
e.g., 340.123456 would indicate a firearm made by the Ithaca Gun Company. There are
potentially hundreds of different sequence numbers associated with Sears-branded fire¬
arms. The purpose of the information in Table 4.2 is not to provide a comprehensive list of
all sequence numbers that could exist but, rather, to focus on providing the consumer of
the information with the prefix letters and numbers needed to identify the manufacturer.
The majority of firearms—comprised primarily of shotguns and some single-shot .22
rifles—sold by Sears under any given brand will not have a factory serial number affixed,
as they were exempted until 1968. The most notable exception is the Model 88 revolver
produced by High Standard, which would have a serial number per law.

Firearms

271

Montgomery Ward

Montgomery Ward sold firearms under the brand names Lakeside and Western Field. As
was the case in the other department stores, these firearms were manufactured by other
companies and were sold primarily by catalog order, but purchases could be made over
the counter. The code or number that would reveal the identity of the actual manufacturer
would appear in the model number as recorded on the receiver or barrel, such as EMN-
171, denoting a product by Marlin (see Table 4.3). Montgomery Ward sold two handguns,
an Iver Johnson .22 revolver, the Model 75, and a French-made .22 pistol, the Model 5.
The name Montgomery Ward, Ward, Wards, the initials M.W., or some variation thereof
is typically marked on the firearm and can be used to ascertain that the firearm was sold
through Montgomery Ward. Some Ward-branded firearms were serial numbered, even
before 1968.

Western Auto Supply Company

The Western Auto Supply Company was another department store firearm retailer.
Western Auto used the brand name Revelation on their rifles and shotguns. Like the other
companies, codes comprising letters, numbers, or letter and number combinations can be
used to cross-reference the actual manufacturer (see Table 4.4). Western Auto-marked fire¬
arms were manufactured primarily by Savage Arms, Marlin Firearms, and Mossberg. Like
Montgomery Ward, Western Auto marketed .22 revolvers, the Model 76 and the Model 99,
both manufactured by High Standard. It is important to note that although the revolvers
may have appeared before 1968, they were required to have a serial number affixed to the
frame. Western Auto-branded ammunition can be found from time to time, having more
of a collector value than a shooting value.

Kmart

Kmart was another department store retailer of arms and ammunition. Kmart did
not offer the plethora of models of other similar chains. Kmart is known to have sold
two models of shotgun, the 151 and 251, both manufactured by the Brazilian firm
Companhia Brasileira de Cartouches. The 251 was also labeled the “Junior.” Both were
single-shot, break-open actions and were not serial numbered. Kmart branded ammu¬
nition is also found from time to time, and has more collectible value than that of useful
ammunition.

J.C. Penney

J.C. Penney retailed their brand of firearms under the name Foremost. As in the other
department stores, the Foremost line was made up of utilitarian rifles and shotguns that
came from contracted gun makers. It should come as no surprise that the same companies
that furnished the arms to Sears, Montgomery Ward, Western Auto, and Kmart also sup¬
plied J.C. Penney. It would appear that J.C. Penney did not have the more complex model¬
numbering system of other retailers and assigned basic four-digit model numbers, as seen
in Table 4.5.

272

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Table 4.3 Montgomery Ward Manufacturer Reference Table

Stock Number Manufacturer

ECH

EFW

EGP

EHM

EJN

EKN

EMJ

EMN

ENH

ERI

XNH

15, 16
19

30,31

33A (.22 slide-action rifle)

35 (12-, 16-, or 20-gauge slide-action shotgun)

35A (rifle)

36 (.22 single-shot rifle)

40 (.22 single-shot rifle)

40N (12-gauge slide-action shotgun)

43, 45, 46, 47, 48
50

58 (.22 rifle)

59,60

72, 72C, 79
80A, 81

500, 730, 732, 734
750

765, 766, 767, 768, 771, 772, 775, 776, 777, 778, 782, 792
808

822, 830, 832
836

840, 842, 846, 850, 865
880

890, 891
894, 895, 895A
5000, Hercules
Premier
Side by Side
Sporter

Colts Patent Firearms, Inc.

Firearms International, Washington, DC

Golden State Arms, Pasadena, CA

Fr. Heym Waffenfabrik, Munnerstadt, West Germany

Jefferson Corporation, North Haven, CT

Kessler Arms Company, Silver Creek, NY

Miroku Company, Kochi City, Japan

Marlin Firearms Co.

Noble Manufacturing, Haydenville, MA
Remington Arms Co., Bridgeport, CT
Iver Johnson, Fitchburg, MA
Kessler Arms

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Savage Arms
J. Stevens Firearms Co.

Noble Manufacturing
Savage Arms

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.
unknown manufacturer
Savage Arms
Marlin Firearms, Inc.

Noble Manufacturing
J. Stevens Firearms Co.

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

Noble Manufacturing
O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Marlin Firearms, Inc.
unknown manufacturer
Savage Arms
unknown manufacturer
O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Savage Arms

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Fabrique Nationale, Herstal, Belgium
O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Savage Arms

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Savage Arms

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Colts Patent Firearms, Inc.

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

J. Stevens Firearms Co.

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Crescent Firearms Co.

Savage Arms

Sources: (Westenberger 1972; Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2011).

Firearms

273

Table 4.4 Western Auto Manufacturer Reference Table

Stock Number

Manufacturer

BD, R

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

76, 99 (.22 revolvers)

High Standard Manufacturing Co.

100

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

101

Savage Arms

105

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

107

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

110, 115, 116

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

117

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

120

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

125

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

135

Savage Arms

150

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

160

Savage Arms

200

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

205,207,210, 220

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

225, 230, 250, 260, 300

Savage Arms

310,312, 325, 330

O.F. Mossberg & Sons, Inc.

335

Marlin Firearms, Inc.

336, 350, 355

Savage Arms

356

J. Stevens Firearms Co.

394, 400

Savage Arms

425

High Standard Manufacturing Co.

Contributing source: (Royal Canadian Mounted Police 2011).

Table 4.5 J.C. Penney Manufacturer Reference Table

Stock Number Firearm and Manufacturer

2035 .22-caliber slide-action rifle made by Marlin Firearms, Inc.

2066 .22-caliber semiautomatic rifle made by Marlin Firearms, Inc.

3040 .32 Winchester Special or .30-30 Winchester lever-action rifle made by Marlin Firearms, Inc.

4011 12-gauge slide-action shotgun by High Standard Manufacturing Co.

6400 .22 Hornet, .222, or .30-30 Winchester bolt-action rifle made by Savage Arms

6500 Bolt-action .30-06 rifle made by Firearms Company, Ltd. (United Kingdom)

6610 .22-caliber single-shot rifle made by J. Stevens Firearms Co.

6630 12-gauge bolt-action shotgun made by Marlin Firearms, Inc.

6647 .410 single-shot shotgun made by Savage Arms

6660 .22-caliber semiautomatic rifle made by Marlin Firearms, Inc.

6670 .410 slide-action shotgun made by J. Stevens Firearms Co.

6870 12- or 20-gauge, or .410 slide-action shotgun made by Savage Arms

274

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Firearm Designs Manufactured by Multiple Manufacturers

Certain firearms have proven so popular that their production has passed from manufac¬
turer to manufacturer, the designs often outliving the manufacturers. The MAC-pattern
firearms, both as a handgun and a machine gun, were originally manufactured by the
Military Armaments Corp. in Georgia. The design has passed from company to company
in the wake of MAC going bankrupt. Nameplates that have manufactured the MAC are
RPB, MAC (located in Texas, not Georgia), SWD, FMJ/LEINAD,' Jersey Arms Works, and
Masterpiece Arms. The name “Cobray” is often associated with the MAC firearm, and the
company logo, a stylized cobra snake, often appears stamped on the firearm. The MAC has
been manufactured in .45 ACP, 9x19mm, and .380 ACP; however, other calibers could be
expected to appear, and conversion kits exist to allow other calibers to be used by the basic
MAC receiver. Numerous variants of the basic models exist, including several carbine ver¬
sions. Aftermarket modifications by individual owners are too vast to cite; any number of
accessories or attachments are available.

The U.S. Model Ml carbine is another firearm that has been produced commercially
postwar by Plainfield, Iver Johnson, Universal Firearms, National Ordnance, and Auto
Ordnance. 1 These copies may appear in various configurations, from the original military
wooden stocks, paratrooper stocks, or more modern composite furniture. Iver Johnson and
Universal manufactured a handgun variant as well, identified by its pistolized stock and
shorter barrel. The model, called the Enforcer, is frequently mistaken for a short-barreled rifle,
but is actually classified as a handgun and meets all requisite requirements as such. For the
most part, the .30 carbine Ml remains the preferred caliber, but there have been experiments
to rechamber Ml carbines to fire a different cartridge. U.S. military contract Ml carbines
were manufactured by Commercial Controls Corporation (Rochester Defense Corp.), Irwin
Peterson, International Business Machines Corp. (IBM), Inland Manufacturing Division
(General Motors), National Postal Meter Co., Quality Hardware & Machine Co., Saginaw
Steering Gear (General Motors), Rock-ola, Standard Products Co., and the Underwood-
Elliot-Fisher Company. Innumerable subcontractors were also involved, and military-sur¬
plus small parts may bear a plurality of markings to indicate these firms. The manufacturer’s
name and the serial number will appear on the heel of the receiver behind the bolt and is
often obscured by an adjustable rear sight. The size of the sight may make it impossible to
read the information without removing it. Ordinarily, the rear sight was staked into the dove¬
tail that the sight was placed in and can be punched out with minimal effort.

Walther PP and PPK

One of the most enduring firearm designs is the Walther PP and PPK. The PPK is simply a
scaled-down version of the Walther PP, which came onto the market in 1929. The PPK fol¬
lowed in 1931 (see Figure 4.51). The PP was designed by Walther as a police pistol for carry
by uniformed officers. The PPK was intended to be carried by the plainclothes officer. Both
models are nearly identical except for the PPK’s smaller dimensions.

FMJ (Full Metal Jacket), located in Ducktown, Tennessee. LEINAD-manufactured MACs also bear the
same information on the receiver.

+ The name Auto Ordnance is currently in use by Kahr Arms. The name is used to market copies of the
original Thompson submachine gun, as well as other historical firearms.

Firearms

275

Figure 4.51 A Walther PPK manufactured during World War II. Both the slide and frame are
serial numbered and match one another. The finish imperfections and presence of milling
marks clearly identify this example as a wartime piece and are common features of wartime
German firearms, especially during later stages of the conflict. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.52 A copy of the PPK's sibling, the PP. This example was manufactured by the
Hungarian arms maker Fegyver as the model R61. The slide legend, S.A.P.S., is a property mark,
"South African Police Service." (Image from author's collection.)

The PP and the PPK were manufactured until 1945, when production was inter¬
rupted. Postwar, the French company Manurhin manufactured the PP series under
license from the newly formed Carl Walther. Manurhin even manufactured a copy of the
Walther P.38. Copies of the PP were also manufactured by the Hungarian arms maker
Fegyver. Examples of the Hungarian PP, designated the R61, were used by the South
African Police Service (see Figure 4.52). These can be readily identified by the S.A.P.S.
engraved on the slide, along with the police crest. Fegyver used several different model
numbers, including Walam and AP66, to identify the pistol series, and they may also be
marked as manufactured by Femaru. The Italian firm Galesi produced PP copies. The
American arms importer, Interarms, of Alexandria, Virginia, concurrently imported

276

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.53 A contemporary PPK/S manufactured in the United States by Smith &. Wesson
under license from Walther. Observe the differences between this pistol and the one depicted
in Figure 4.51, although both are PPK pistols. (Image from author's collection.)

PP-type pistols while at the same time manufacturing their own version domestically.
This can lead to some confusion when attempting to determine whether Interarms was
the manufacturer or the importer. The identifications markings must be clearly read
and understood. Iver Johnson manufactured two models outwardly similar to the PP:
the TP-22 and the TP-25. The Turkish firm MKEK manufactures a PP copy called the
Kirikkale. In 2002, Smith & Wesson entered into an agreement with Walther to manu¬
facture the PPK in the United States as the PPK/S (see Figure 4.53). This was part of
an apparently broader business relationship between the two companies, as Smith &
Wesson now imports Walther’s products exclusively.

Like all prolific models, the PP series pistols have innumerable variations, and they can
be found chambered in most of the popular small-pistol calibers of the twentieth century,
from .22 to 9x18mm Makarov. There can be no doubt that the popularity of the PPK can
be attributed to the fictional British secret agent James Bond, who took issue of the gun
from the British government in exchange for his Beretta pistol. Ironically, he did so grudg¬
ingly and only under direct order. There is no dispute that the PP and the PPK were both
very advanced and influential designs, but they were not singular. The Mauser HSc and the
Sauer 38h were also quite advanced; however, neither was ever able to gain the following of
the Walther duo. Mauser briefly reintroduced the HSc to market in the 1970s, but it did not
fare well in the commercial sector and was discontinued.

Model 1911 and 1911A1

Although designed by John Browning through a series of successive pistols, the 1911- and
1911Al-pattern pistols were originally manufactured by Colt (see Figure 4.54). Colt has
continually produced the pistols, but they have been joined by an ever-increasing num¬
ber of firms that manufacture them as well. Colt was joined during both world wars by
various contractors in order to fill wartime demands. Postwar surplus 1911 and 1911A1
pistols were reworked and reengineered by all varieties of gunsmiths and custom gun
builders in their interpretation of improvements to the basic design. U.S. military 1911

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277

Figure 4.54 The Colt Model 1911 Series 80 chambered in .45 ACP. The Series 80 was manufac¬
tured from 1983 to 1988. Overtly, there is nothing different about the Series 80 from other 1911
pistols save for the introduction of an internal firing pin safety. Regardless of the manufacturer
and exact date of manufacture, the 1911 design is classic and immediately recognized. (Image
from author's collection.)

and 1911A1 frames were not marked by manufacturer; instead, the manufacturers placed
their name on the slide. Since it is not uncommon to find mismatched slide and frame
combinations, the manufacturer may have to be identified by the inspector stamps and
serial number. World War I companies involved in military production included Colt, the
U.S. military Springfield Arsenal, North American Arms, and Savage Arms. World War
II subcontractors included Remington Rand, Ithaca Gun Co., Union Switch & Signal, and
Singer Manufacturing. Licensed copies from Colt were manufactured in Argentina and
were marked “Ejercito Argentina,” or “Marina Argentina” if for naval use.

During the first half of the twentieth century, Colt filled overseas orders for Canada,
England, Russia, Mexico, and Norway. Colt has made changes to the design over the years
and even manufactured wartime replicas, complete with packaging, instruction manual,
and markings that were authentic to the era. Colt has commercially produced many mod¬
els based on the 1911. The proliferation of companies now manufacturing a 1911-pattern
handgun is enormous, affirming the continued popularity of the design. At present, there
are likely no fewer than a dozen companies that manufacture a 1911 handgun, including
major manufacturers such as Colt, Smith & Wesson, and SIG Arms, and others such as
Armscor of the Philippines (under the names Charles Daly and Rock Island Armory), Auto
Ordnance, Browning Arms, Essex, High Standard, Kimber, Magnum Research, Metro
Arms, Nighthawk Custom, Para Ordnance, Remington Arms (not to be confused with
Remington Rand), Shooter Arms Manufacturing (marketed in the United States by ATI,
or American Tactical Imports), Springfield Armory, Taurus, Wilson Combat, and others.
The Spanish gun makers Astra and Star extensively manufactured the design, and their
products are so marked.

Variations of the basic 1911 frame include cosmetic additions, widened frames to
accommodate double-stack magazines as opposed to the original single-stack magazines,
and a wide variety of calibers. The popularity of the design does not appear to be waning,
even in light of the subsequent developments in handguns.

278

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Beretta 92

Versions of the Beretta 92 have been manufactured in Brazil, Egypt, South Africa, and the
United States. Beretta manufactures the 92 not only in Italy, but also in the United States
through its Beretta USA subsidiary. Close attention must be paid as to the true origin of
a particular Beretta-manufactured 92 if it is of interest to determine whether the pistol
was of Italian or U.S. origin. Taurus International produces its own version of the 92, the
PT-92, and numerous variations of it using a factory that Beretta established in Brazil. The
Egyptian copy of the 92 is called the Helwan, which has been imported into the United
States. The South African version, the Z88, was manufactured by two firms: Vektor and
Lyttleton Engineering. American Tactical markets a version, the AT92C, which is manu¬
factured in Turkey by MKEK. The Beretta 21, unique for its tip-up barrel, is made not only
by Beretta, but also by Taurus as well. Overtly, they are indistinguishable. The continuity
of design cues by Beretta allows for even vintage Berettas to stand out. The 92 design is
dimensionally larger, but carries all the classic Beretta aesthetics going back to the Model
1915. The top portion of the barrel is exposed between the breech and the front sight,
with the corresponding portion of the slide left open. The Model 951R and the Model 93R
are both machine pistols, capable of functioning as machine guns. The 93R has a selector
switch where the safety/decocker is located on the 92 series. A folding forward grip is also
affixed, and a shoulder stock completes the rig.

M14, MIA, and Variants

The M14 was conceived as a replacement for the Ml Garand as the primary infantry battle
rifle for the U.S. military. For all practical purposes, the M14 was simply a reiteration of
the basic Ml action that was rechambered in .308, which itself was a shortened .30-06 car¬
tridge. The M14 was slightly improved: It was loaded from a detachable 20-round magazine
instead of relying on an 8-round en bloc clip. In theory, the M14 could have filled several
roles, replacing the Garand as the main infantry battle rifle and the Browning Automatic
Rifle as the squad automatic.

The M14 was manufactured under contract by Harrington & Richardson, Thompson-
Ramo-Wooldridge (TRW), and Winchester Repeating Arms. The M14 was the last rifle to
be manufactured by the U.S. arsenal in Springfield, Massachusetts. M14s manufactured
for the U.S. government are machine guns (see Figures 4.55 and 4.56); however, they were
generally configured to fire semiautomatically only. Surplus M14 rifles were available for
civilian purchase for a brief period of time in the mid-1960s, but further sales were stopped
by 1968. The interest in the M14 has prompted production of numerous commercial cop¬
ies. The Chinese gun maker NORINCO exported a version, and a domestic version was
produced by Federal Ordnance and Smith Enterprises, and it is still made by Springfield
Armory in Illinois.

Semiautomatic versions of the M14, generically coined the MIA, overtly resemble
the M14, and early commercial examples made extensive use of surplus military parts to
assemble them, including stocks. The receiver markings, found on the top of the back end
of the receiver, include the model manufacturer, caliber, and serial number. On a commer¬
cial gun, these resemble the military markings very closely and may cause an erroneous
identification of an MIA or M1A1 as an M14.

Firearms

2 79

Figure 4.55 (See color insert.) A U.S. Rifle M14 manufactured by Harrington & Richardson is
a machine gun. This example bears the circle P proof mark and eagle cartouche on the stock.
(Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.56 (See color insert.) Close-up of the receiver markings of the H&R M14. Note the
selector switch knob on the right side of the receiver. Semiautomatic copies of the M14 gener¬
ally do not have the notch cut in the stock for the selector, although surplus stocks in circula¬
tion may or may not be cut for the selector. (Image from author's collection.)

Current production by Springfield Armory is in a plurality of configurations. The U.S.
military has retained use of the M14, although current iterations of it hardly resemble
the original M14. The rifle has been subject to regular enhancements and was frequently
revisited because nothing else quite met the need. The M14, in U.S. military terminology,
has recently gone by several names, and several more modifications include the M21 and
M25 Sniper variant, Mark 14 MOD 0 EBR (Enhanced Battle Rifle), and the M39 EMR
(Enhanced Marksman Rifle). Although officially slated for replacement once again, it is
likely that the M14 will leave the service in name only.

Perhaps some of the most interesting variants of this series of rifle are the Italian
contributions. Few are aware that Garand production was initiated in earnest in Italy by
Beretta and Breda in the immediate postwar era, using surplus machinery and technical
assistance from the United States. The Breda-manufactured examples carry a BRM (Breda

280

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.57 (See color insert.) The M14-pattern rifle manufactured by Beretta as the BM59.
There are definite similarities, but note the distinct differences between the M14 and the BM59.
This example has a bipod, a grenade-launcher spigot on the muzzle, a grenade-launching ladder-
type sight, and a pistol grip instead of a standard rifle stock. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.58 (See color insert.) Close-up of the BM59 receiver. Note the selector switch on
the left side and the "P.B. BM59" marking on the action-lock button. The marking practices
used by Beretta on the BM59 mimicked other manufacturers of the M14. Barely visible on the
receiver below the sight-adjustment knob is the importer's mark "Springfield Armory," not to
be mistaken for the government arsenal. (Image from author's collection.)

Meccanica Romana) marking on the heel and on the left side of the receiver. Beretta’s prod¬
ucts carry the atypical PB marking. Beretta modified the Garand into a select-fire rifle,
the BM59 (see Figure 4.57). Several variants were manufactured, usually identified by the
type of stock, either a standard wooden full stock or a folding style. Beretta exported the
BM59 and a semiautomatic variant, the BM62, to the United States during the 1960s and
through the 1970s. Several variants of the BM59 produced in the United States also exist, as
either select-fire or semiautomatic rifles (see Figure 4.58). The Beretta- and Breda-produced
examples apparently were widely sold around the world and could turn up nearly any¬
where. Other markings may also be observed, such as the crown over “FKF,” indicating
Danish use. The BM59 was also manufactured in Indonesia. Overtly resembling an M14,
only examination of the receiver markings will clearly define the BM59.

Armalite Rifle

The AR pattern has become one of the dominant firearms in the U.S. commercial mar¬
ketplace. Contrary to popular belief, the AR designation was not an abbreviation for

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281

“assault rifle,” but “Armalite Rifle.” The popularity of the model has prompted nearly
every major gun maker in the United States (or with a U.S. market presence) to produce
their own version, and innumerable smaller manufacturers have joined in to capture a
piece of the market.

The AR-15 is traditionally associated with Colt; however, names such as Charles Daly,
Ruger, SIG Sauer, and Smith & Wesson have added the model to their product line. Certain
firms specialize in the AR, such as Bushmaster, DPMS (sold under the name Panther
Arms), Rock River Arms, Knight’s Armament, Lewis Machine and Tool, and Sabre Defense
have made it their cornerstone product. Currently, there are some 400 manufacturers of
record putting their name on AR-pattern firearms, a broad spectrum ranging from major
manufacturers (as previously described) to sole proprietorships and every size in between.
Companies outside the United States have also joined the market, and foreign names can
be added to the list of domestic manufacturers. Astra Arms, formerly located in Spain but
since relocated to Switzerland, manufactures an AR, designated the StG4. Schmeisser of
Germany simply calls it the AR; Oberland Arms of Germany markets it as the OA-15; and
the Italian firm ADC sells it as the Bodyguard. The Military Ordnance Corp. in Sudan
manufactures a rifle that bears overt similarities to the M16 chambered in 7.62x51mm
called the Terab. There is likely no other firearm that has the aftermarket following of the
AR; nearly any type of functional or aesthetic modification can be expected.

AR stocks can be fixed or collapsible. The standard fixed stock is constructed of poly¬
mer and resembles a typical rifle stock. Earlier style full stocks have a distinctly shiny
plastic appearance. Later examples, especially prevalent when the M16A2 was developed,
featured a duller matte finished stock of better quality material. Collapsible stocks require
the use of a different recoil buffer tube that is notched to accommodate the different
lengths of extension. The original Colt collapsible stock that was initially tested on the
XM177 (CAR-15, or Commando) during the Vietnam War featured a two-position buffer
tube mounting a “fiberlite” stock, which is rather plain in appearance in comparison to
the wide assortment of stock styles now available. Currently there are innumerable styles
of collapsible stock, ranging from very basic patterns to those with storage compartments,
interchangeable cheek pieces, carry-sling mounts, and other customizable options. A faux
collapsible stock is available, giving the appearance of the real thing, but it is fixed in posi¬
tion and nonfunctional. Until recently, a buffer tube was a fixture on an AR and was part
of the operating system, since the recoil buffer and spring were contained within the tube
that extended from the rear of the lower receiver. Pistol versions of the AR featured the
buffer tube, typically covered with a rubber or foam coating, but denying the immediate
ability to attach a stock. Recent proprietary designs from Rock River Arms and Sig Arms
have eliminated the need for the buffer tube, as the recoil system has been redesigned to fit
inside the upper receiver.

Classically, the standard barrel length for an AR-15 rifle was 20 inches. The origi¬
nal barrel was a thinned, tapered style. The M16A2, often called the H-BAR, featured a
heavier barrel profile. Other common barrel lengths include 1014, 1114, 1414, and 16 inch.
Barrels longer than 20 inches are available and typically are used on ARs intended for
precision shooting and hunting. Barrels shorter than 1114 inches are made and typically
reserved for handgun applications, but can be mounted to any standard upper receiver.
One of the latest iterations of the M16 platform in military circles is the Mark 18 Mod 0,
which is equipped with a 10.8-inch barrel. A 1414-inch barrel is standard on U.S. military
M4 carbines and carbine AR-15 rifles; a 16-inch barrel is the minimum allowed by U.S.

282

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

law without registration as a short-barreled rifle. In addition to the standard barrel and the
H-BAR, other barrel profiles are manufactured, including a stepped barrel that is notched
near the muzzle, as well as other profiles of various diameters. The traditional triangle-
style front sight post may be omitted in favor of a gas-block-style mount that permits the
installation of alternative styles of front sight in lieu of the traditional triangular front
sight post.

Destructive testing of M16 barrels was undertaken by the U.S. Army Armament
Research, Development, and Engineering Center. Comparison testing was conducted using
the M16A2 equipped with a 20-inch heavy barrel and the M4A1 equipped with FfiA-inch
stepped barrel. The final report was released September 1996 and revealed that the M4A1
barrel failed after firing 596 continuous rounds in 30-round increments. The M16A2 bar¬
rel failed after firing 491 continuous rounds, also in 30-round increments. The test subject
M16A2, while originally set up with a 3-round burst configuration, had full-auto-fire con¬
trol parts installed for testing purposes. Ten seconds between bursts to change magazines
was allotted. The temperature at the time of catastrophic barrel failure was also measured
as part of the evaluation. The temperature of the M16A2 barrel at the moment of failure
was 1599° Fahrenheit; the M4A1 barrel was 1639° Fahrenheit (Windham 1996).

Barrels manufactured for installation on new receivers destined for the commer¬
cial market between September 1994 and September 2004 were not threaded on the end
to accept any form of flash hider or compensator. In certain instances, a manufacturer
may have opted to install a faux flash hider, which in every respect resembled the Al- or
A2-style flash hider but did not feature the cutouts to make it functional; it was there for
aesthetic purposes only. Otherwise, barrels are threaded on the muzzle, and an endless
variety of flash hiders or compensators are available. The attachment is installed using one
of two types of washer, a crush type or a peel type. The peel type gets its name from its
resemblance to a fruit skin that has been peeled. The crush washer is circular and is liter¬
ally “crushed” into place as the attachment is threaded on.

As ammunition specifications changed in U.S. military use, the rifling twist rate* was
changed. The original rifling twist rate was 1:12, then changed to 1:9, and is currently set
at 1:7 for 5.56x45mm chambered firearms to optimize firing heavier projectiles (62 grains
and above). The rate of twist for other calibers will be different. Current U.S. military bar¬
rels are set up in 1:7 twist, but 1:9 twist rates are standard for commercial-specification
barrels. Barrels may be lined with either chrome moly or chrome. Ordinarily, the barrel
information will be inscribed on top of the barrel between the muzzle and the front sight.

The barrel is shrouded by a hand guard that covers from the receiver to the front sight.
The original Al-style hand guard was triangular in shape. The A2-style hand guard was
round and featured heat shielding. Full-length, midlength, and carbine-length hand guards
are available, depending on the setup of the barrel. Contemporary hand guards are more
likely to feature rail attachment systems for accessories. These rails, the M1913, are often
referred to as the “picatinny rail,” a term derived from the Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey.

The AR-pattern firearm is made up of two receivers, an upper receiver and a lower
receiver. The two are joined by a pivot pin and a takedown pin. Several styles of upper
receiver exist, including the standard, original style featuring an integrated carry handle.

The given ratios of barrel rifling are the number of rotations the projectile makes over a given distance
of barrel. A 1:16 indicates that a projectile will rotate once for every 16 inches of barrel travel.

Firearms

283

Very early examples and some new-production retro-style upper receivers feature the
charging handle within the carry handle. More contemporary upper receivers are called flat
tops and have the top of the upper receiver incorporating a rail system for the attachment
of various styles of sights and accessories. Regardless of the appearance of the firearm, the
focus remains on proper identification of the receiver. The upper receiver is not considered
the firearm receiver in the United States; the lower receiver is the actual firearm receiver,
thus the lower receiver markings are the most relevant, including serial number, manu¬
facturer, model, caliber, etc. Traditionally, the AR upper and lower receivers started their
lives as aluminum forgings. The capacity to produce such forgings falls upon a few firms
within the United States, which then sell them to various manufacturers that machine the
forging into the firearm receiver. Variations of the basic forged aluminum receiver exist,
including variants made of carbon fiber, cast-metal types, and those machined from billets
of other metals. The beauty of the AR lies in its design approach. The basic lower receiver
can practically be rebuilt perpetually as long it is not physically damaged. Pistol versions
are quite common, featuring very short barrels and no shoulder stock, per U.S. regulations.

Colt has apparently responded to increased competition from the new generation
of modular weapon systems as well as other developments in the AR-15/M16 platform.
For military and law enforcement clientele, Colt has started marketing new models: the
Advanced Colt Carbine Monolithic (ACC-M), Colt Infantry Assault Rifle (IAR), Colt Sub
Compact Weapon (SCW), and a gas-piston-operated variant called the Colt Advanced
Piston Carbine (APC). The Advanced Colt Carbine Monolithic is similar to other single¬
piece upper receiver assemblies offered by other manufacturers, featuring a free-floating
barrel. This carbine introduces ambidextrous fire control, magazine release, and fire selec¬
tor switch. The Colt Infantry Assault Rifle incorporates the Colt Monolithic upper receiver,
ambidextrous safety switch, and a unique heat sink to increase barrel life under prolonged
fire. The Colt Sub Compact Weapon is a departure from the standard M16 architecture,
featuring a unique bolt carrier and buffer design that reduces the overall length. The Sub
Compact Weapon also incorporates the Monolithic upper receiver. The Colt Advanced
Piston Carbine combines the gas-piston system with the single-piece upper receiver, almost
a standard across the spectrum of the AR-15/M16 architecture (Colt Defense 2011).

The AR is sold in countless variations and in a broad spectrum of calibers (see
Figure 4.59). There is likely no other firearm that has ever been manufactured offered in
the array of calibers as that of the AR-15. Colt has made the rifle in .223, 9x19mm, and
7.62x39mm, but there are now literally dozens of available options for caliber on the mar¬
ket, from the most popular handgun and rifle calibers to those that are rather obscure. The
most basic AR caliber conversion takes the form of replacing the upper receiver with one
with an appropriate barrel affixed, changing the bolt carrier group, and perhaps replacing
the magazine. The only obstacle presented is when the cartridge dimensions cannot be
accommodated into the AR-15 magazine well, such as in the case of attempting to use .308
in a 5.56A223 lower receiver. The magazine well is simply too short to accommodate the
magazine dimensions required for the larger rounds. To get around this technical issue,
some conversion kits convert the AR into a single-shot rifle or use a magazine or ammu¬
nition-feeding interface (such as a belt) that feeds into the upper receiver through an alter¬
native route than the magazine well in the lower receiver. In the case of longer cartridge
lengths, the AR lower receiver is slightly elongated to provide the accommodation.

284

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 4.59 Two examples of the endless AR configurations that can be encountered. Both
examples are semiautomatic rifles. (Image from author's collection.)

Until recently, the buffer system was integral to the function of the AR-pattern firearm,
regardless of caliber or whether it was configured as a rifle or pistol. Contained within the
buffer tube assembly are a spring and buffer. Several versions of the buffer exist, including
a standard buffer and a carbine buffer, often called the H or tungsten buffer for “heavy.”
The carbine buffer is designed to offset the shorter carbine barrel and gas pressure, thereby
helping to manage the rate of fire in a machine gun. The 9x19mm and .22 AR firearms use a
mechanical buffer instead of the traditional buffer and spring, because neither cartridge will
develop sufficient gas pressure to work using gas impingement. The 9x19mm version is essen¬
tially a blowback-operated firearm. Recent developments by Rock River Arms and SIG have
resulted in an AR-influenced design that does away with the traditional buffer tube assembly.
As previously mentioned, Colt’s Sub Compact Weapon has a dimensionally reduced recoil
buffer and redesigned bolt carrier group. This allows pistolized or shortened carbine versions
to be very compact and provides for an even greater flexibility in stock designs for rifles.
Rock River describes their design as featuring “a purpose-designed bolt carrier, adjustable
gas piston, and over-the-barrel spring and guide rod placement” (Rock River Arms 2011). In
company literature Sig Sauer does not specify what design changes were made to develop the
Model 556 pistol, but it is likely that they are similar to the Rock River.

In recent years, the major movement in the AR is the push toward using a gas-piston
operation over the original gas impingement. It is ironic that Eugene Stoner envisioned
a gas-piston-operated AR variant as a cheaper alternative; however, the gas piston was
discarded in favor of the gas impingement. The principle disadvantages of the gas piston
include a weight penalty to account for the additional apparatus, as well as additional parts.
A standard aluminum AR-15 with 16-inch barrel and collapsible stock weighs approxi¬
mately 6 V 2 lbs. empty. Gas-piston AR rifles can weigh upwards of 714 lbs. As a machine
gun, gas-piston operation generally equates to a slightly lower rate of fire, which itself is
not necessarily a handicap. Gas impingement is lighter because the gas tube does the work
of the mechanical linkages of a gas piston; however, certain powder formulations and less-
than-routine maintenance can clog the action with fouling carbon and debris buildup. The
AR firearm must be routinely cleaned and lubricated to maintain proper function.

The AR was meant to be built to a high standard, using very advanced materials, and
made with very close internal tolerances in mind, all of which have resulted in a durable

Firearms

285

product. Most weapons-related failures of the design relate directly to preventive mainte¬
nance issues, but they can also be attributed to substandard parts. Unknowledgeable build¬
ers can also be found at fault for “unreliable” or “under reliable” firearms. Gas ports that
are out of specification create an overgased or undergased firearm that results in inherent
cycling issues, as will a nonspecification or damaged gas tube. An AR that has been assem¬
bled using substandard or nonspecification parts will directly affect the reliability and func¬
tion of the component in question. Another common cause of malfunction is the magazine,
in particular the magazine spring. The spring will cause insufficient pressure to be exerted
when worn, causing misfeed or failure to feed. Broken extractors are a common issue on
ARs that have fired quantities of steel-cased ammunition, which wears the part prematurely.

The basic AR-15/M16 platform has served as a basis for an entire series of firearms. The
AR receiver has been configured into all forms of firearm, from handguns to carbines to stan¬
dard rifles and even precision rifles. Regardless of the individual characteristics of any partic¬
ular firearm, the basic AR platform remains the same. Countless aftermarket parts suppliers
and the various and sundry manufacturers tout some facet of the design as being superior.
However, the parts supply chain and manufacturing is, generally speaking, so homogenized
that these professed advantages of one over another are not very clear or well articulated.

Kalashnikov-Pattern Firearm

Without question, the most ubiquitous firearm on the planet today is the AK pattern (see
Figure 4.60). It is generally estimated that in excess of 35 million AK-pattern firearms have
been manufactured across the planet since the AK-47 first entered service with the Soviet
Union in 1949. The term AK is an abbreviation for Automat Kalashnikov, in tribute to its
designer, General Mikhail Kalashnikov. The term itself has become somewhat generic and
has come to mean any firearm bearing the general appearance of an AK-47 as a machine
gun. This genre of firearm is often erroneously referred to as the AK-47; in fact, most of these

Figure 4.60 Ten AK-pattern rifles recovered from a clandestine weapons cache in Baghdad,
Iraq, September 2008. The diversity of stocks, grips, and attachments in this small sample
clearly shows that such a rifle can be found in nearly endless varieties. (U.S. Army image; pho¬
tographer Staff Sgt. Brian D. Lehnhard.)

286

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

firearms in existence are likely a copy of the AKM. The AK-47 had a receiver milled from
solid steel and was only produced by Soviet state arsenals until 1959, when it was superseded
by the AKM and production of the AK-47 ceased. The M of AKM indicates “modernized”:
The receiver was manufactured of sheet metal that is stamped into form. The plurality of
models goes on from there, as the Kalashnikov system of operation served as a basis for other
firearms from squad automatic weapons* to compact personal defense weapons. In addition
to the Soviet-produced examples, many nations manufactured their own copy of the AK. The
AK has inspired other designs, including the Swedish Valmet and the Israeli Galil.

The proliferation of the AK has led to it having something of a cult status. The silhou¬
ette of an AK is featured prominently on the national flag of Mozambique as well as on
the emblems of other nations and movements; it is mentioned by name in modern music.
The AK is so recognized from television and movies that anyone, regardless of interest or
knowledge of firearms, seems to be able to recognize it. An AK firearm, ammunition, mag¬
azines, and the limited accoutrements available for it are considered hard currency in many
parts of the world. What is ironic is that the AK never came to personify the political sys¬
tem of communism to the same degree that it became an icon for innumerable revolutions.

The features of the AK betray its age. The construction techniques were typical for
firearms of the 1940s, using steel and wood. The bore was chrome lined, a typically Soviet
practice for automatic weapons. The rear sight is the obsolescent tangent sight system, more
common during the Second World War on rifles, but still effective and simple. Outwardly,
the AK resembles the German-developed Sturmgewehr rifle, having a layout that became
common in postwar military rifles. Although the AK bears physical similarities to the
Sturmgewehr, the method of operation between the two is different.

Like other paramilitary style firearms in the United States, four basic categories of AK
exist today:

Factory-manufactured machine guns originating from any nation engaged in pro¬
duction of AK-pattern firearms

Factory-manufactured semiautomatic copies of the AK sold commercially in the
United States that are imported from foreign nations
Factory-manufactured semiautomatic copies of the AK sold commercially in the
United States that are imported from foreign nations in a “sporting” configura¬
tion, which are then reconfigured to a classic military appearance by conversion
U.S.-manufactured receivers mated to a mixture of foreign- or domestic-sourced
parts to complete the firearm build

AK-pattern firearms imported into the United States are semiautomatic weapons.
Semiautomatic AKs, both pistols and rifles, have been imported from China, Romania,
Hungary, Bulgaria, the Russian Federation, and Egypt. In addition to complete firearms,
AK parts kits have appeared from the Czech Republic, East Germany, Hungary, the nations

A squad automatic weapon is a machine gun that is capable of being deployed by an individual and
is designed to fulfill a sustained-fire role. Often abbreviated as SAW, the squad automatic weapon is
larger than the standard infantry rifle but smaller than other machine guns. The term general-purpose
machine gun predated the use of the term SAW. Examples of a squad automatic weapon include the U.S.
M60, M240, and the M249. The World War II German MG-34 and MG-42 and the later variations of them
can be defined as SAWs, although that is not how they were defined at the time, when the term general-
purpose machine gun applied.

Firearms

287

Figure 4.61 This image is a close-up showing the markings on the left side of an AK barrel
trunnion. In this case, the manufacturer is Zastava, located in Kragujevac, Yugoslavia (now
Serbia). This marking dates the manufacture of this AK to prior to the breakup of Yugoslavia.
Many Eastern Bloc AKs were marked on the barrel trunnion, and not necessarily on the
receiver itself due to space considerations. Many thousands of Zastava AKs were demilled and
sold as "parts kits" to the U.S. market, allowing builders to install these on a new receiver.
The receiver must be researched for markings, as these other markings would be erroneous for
identification. (Image from author's collection.)

within the former nation of Yugoslavia, and Poland (see Figure 4.61). A parts kit is defined
as all of the components to build a complete firearm, minus receiver. When parts kits were
imported into the United States, the receiver was completely destroyed by cutting it into
pieces by a BATFE-prescribed and -approved method. Using these parts kits, companies
and individuals have assembled AK-type firearms on newly manufactured receivers made
in the United States. Such hybrid arms can create a certain amount of confusion because of
the contradiction in markings, serial numbers, and other features found on the firearm. As
is the case with all firearms, the receiver markings are the relevant ones to be used for iden¬
tification. It may be of trivial interest to recognize where the other components may have
originated. It was common practice for the original manufacturer to mark every part with
a serial number, which matched the original receiver. However, since the original receiver
was destroyed and the parts retained, the original serial number cannot be expected to
match a newly made receiver. Most U.S.-made receivers bear their legal markings on the
bottom of the receiver in front of the magazine well; others are marked on either the right
or left side of the receiver, usually above the trigger.

Regardless of when and where the AK was manufactured, the basic principle of opera¬
tion remains the same. The AK operates on a long-stroke gas piston, and the gas system is
very simple. Gas pressure bleeds from the barrel through a gas block above the barrel and
returns by way of a gas tube, where it acts against the gas piston. The size of the gas port is
quite generous (over Vi inch in diameter) and is therefore not susceptible to clogging. The
piston is threaded into the bolt carrier as a single piece, allowing it to also act as an operat¬
ing rod. This bolt carrier assembly contains the bolt, which rotates within a channel milled
into the assembly. The bolt carrier assembly reciprocates along rails at the top of either side
of the receiver and is returned to battery by way of a recoil spring. The recoil spring locks

288

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

to the receiver by two ears that lock it to a corresponding lug at the back of the receiver, and
sits directly in a recess at the back of the bolt carrier assembly To access the interior of the
firearm, the sheet-metal dust cover is removed from the top of the receiver by depressing a
button of rectangular appearance at the rear of the receiver, allowing the dust cover to be
lifted off. To replace, the dust cover locks into place above the chamber and is secured by
sliding it back over the release button.

The basic AK can be found in a vast array of configurations, driven in part by market
forces but primarily by various legislative efforts that affected the firearm. Stocks may
be wood, polymer, or metal. Wooden stocks are found in several lengths. Later Chinese
exported AKs, designated MAK-90 (MAK for Modified AK), were sold with a thumb-
hole-style stock in an attempt to “sporterize” the basic rifle to comply with legislation.
Earlier Chinese exports had either a standard wooden stock or a folding-style metal stock.
Polymer stocks can be either fixed or folded to the side. Metal stocks can fold underneath
or to the side. Nonfunctional folding stocks are also found and are designed to be compli¬
ant with venues that prohibit that particular feature. The folding stocks are rendered non¬
functional by permanently pinning or welding them into place. It is theoretically possible
to reengineer such a configuration; however, from a practical standpoint, it seems unlikely.

More recently, M16-style stocks have appeared that can be mated to the AK. Barrels
may be found with various styles of functional or nonfunctional compensators or “flash
hiders” attached to the muzzle, and the bayonet lug may either be present or absent. Some
models are completely devoid of any muzzle device, whereas others feature a cylindrical
design with horizontal openings on both sides and several off-center holes at the top, a
very efficient design. Another design is slanted with a bias to the upper right, which is the
direction that an AK will climb under sustained full-auto fire. Some muzzles are threaded,
allowing for any of the plurality of muzzle attachments to fit. To release, there is a locking
detent pin that is depressed, allowing the muzzle attachment to be removed.

The combination safety and selector switch are on the right side of the receiver. Table 4.6
shows AK selector switch markings by nation of origin. A semiautomatic AK has two posi¬
tions. The safe position is the topmost position and prevents the action from opening.
The lowest position is the semiautomatic fire position. The presence of a middle position,
whether marked or not, should be a point of suspicion that the firearm may be altered to
fire in full auto. The Israeli Galil and the U.S.-made commercial copy, the Golani Sporter,
have a safety switch on the left side of the receiver above the trigger, which works in concert
with the safety lever on the right side of the receiver. The two switches are mechanically
linked so that manipulation of one affects the other. The Israelis were impressed enough
with the AK pattern that the Galil is patterned after it, as are the ARM and the MAR
(Micro Assault Rifle), which first appeared in 1995 and are copied from the AKS-74U. The
South Africans were sufficiently impressed with the Galil that they manufactured their
own copies of it, the R4 and the R6, which appeared in 1975.

The AK was not originally designed with the feature to hold the bolt open when the
last round was fired from the magazine, nor was there a catch installed that would allow
the operator to lock the action to the rear for the purposes of safety or inspection. Izhmash
AK-pattern rifles commercially imported into the United States feature a small bolt catch
on the right side of the receiver adjacent the trigger guard. Certain U.S.-made receiver AK
firearms feature a bolt hold open that differs in that the feature is automatic, but the bolt
is easily closed with even modest pressure. Some professional builders and home tinkerers
have modified the safety switch by cutting a small notch to act as a bolt hold open.

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289

Table 4.6 AK Selector Switch Markings by Nation of Origin

Country

Selector Characters

Bulgaria

Efl

China

Czechoslovakia

East Germany

Finland

Hungary

Korea

Poland

Romania

Russia

Ofl

Yugoslavia

Source: (BATFE 2006c).

An unusual commercial variation of the AK is the Romanian CUGIR Model PAR-1,
which is slide action, not semiautomatic. The action had been modified to turn the fore
grip into a functional slide. Otherwise the rifle was the same, still accepting detachable
magazines and having the same AK-style fixtures.

AK firearms classified as handguns do not have a shoulder stock and should not be
confused with the shortened version of the AK generically called the Krinkov. The Krinkov
has a metal frame folding stock and very short barrel, measuring approximately 8 V 2 inches
in length. As with all variations of the AK, this short version was manufactured by many
different nations under various model numbers; it was formerly known in Russia as the
AKS-47 and later the AKS-74U, which is chambered in 5.45x39mm. Copies intended to
mimic the design often feature an elongated tube, in essence a faux suppressor, to get
the barrel length up to the minimum for a rifle to avoid the implication of making or
having a short-barreled rifle. Such an attachment must be permanently affixed by pre¬
scribed methods. Lawfully possessed and registered short-barreled rifles in semiautomatic,
mimicking the Krinkov, have been manufactured. As a historical footnote, Osama bin

290

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Laden apparently favored the weapon; some of the most famous images of him reflect one,
likely an AKS-74U, close at hand. Figure 4.16 shows the Krinkov configuration.

The Chinese call their AK the Type 56, as does North Korea. The Czechs labeled theirs
as the M70. The Albanian AK series of weapons use the model prefix ASH, followed by
a number designation to indicate the specific configuration. The Bulgarian model desig¬
nation is similar, using the prefixes AKK, AK, and AKS. East Germany used the prefix
MPi followed by numbers to describe specific models within the family of firearms. The
Sudanese variant is the MAZ. In Poland the design is made as the AKMS, manufactured
at Lucznik. In addition, NATO-chambered 5.56x45mm variants of the AK, dubbed the
Beryl and Mini-Beryl are produced as well. During the Cold War, the AK-pattern weapons
were the PMK series, including some sporting variations. With the appearance of the
5.45x39mm cartridge, the Poles produced the Kbk.wz.88, the Kbk.wz.89, and the Kbk.
wz.90 (two versions, the Tantel and the Onyx). The Romanian arsenal at Cugir started
producing AK-pattern weapons around 1960, calling them the AIM. Cugir still produces
the AK pattern in the 5.45, 5.56, and the 7.62x39mm. The 7.62 versions are the Models 63,
65, and 90. The 5.45 is the Model 86. The Egyptian-made AK is called the Maadi, MISR, or
ARM, a direct AKM duplication. The Hungarian versions are the AKM-63 and the AMD-
65, both copies of the AK-47 (see Figure 4.62). The NGM is the Hungarian copy of the
AK-47 chambered in the NATO 5.56x45mm. The Finnish manufactured the m/60, m/62,
m/76, m/78, and the m/90; all are called the Valmet. The m/60 and m/62 are copies of the
AK-47; the m/76 can be found chambered in either 7.62x39mm or in 5.56x45mm. The m/76
was really just an improved m/62—using stamped and formed metal and adding tritium
sights for shooting in diminished light. The m/76 was exported to other nations, including
Qatar and Indonesia. The m/78 is the squad automatic rifle variant resembling the Russian
RPK. Iraq manufactured its own AKM in 7.62x39mm, called the Tabuk. Regardless of the
specific model name or number applied to the weapon by the producer or by the nation or
persons carrying it, the term Kalashnikov is recognized in practically any language.

Figure 4.62 A Hungarian AMD-65 in the hands of a member of the Afghan National Police.
Although it is an AK-pattern rifle, the AMD-65 is distinguishable by its forward vertical fore
grip that is an exact copy of the pistol grip and by the selector-switch markings: The center posi¬
tion is the symbol for infinity, and the lowest position is the numeral 1. A semiautomatic ver¬
sion of the AMD-65 is manufactured as the SA2000M or SA65M, produced as such by Fegyver
or using a U.S.-made receiver. (U.S. Air Force image; photographer Staff Sgt. Joseph Swafford.)

Firearms

291

Commercially there is a huge aftermarket following to accessorize the AK-type fire¬
arm. Most of these accessories are aesthetic in nature and include all styles of grips, rail
systems, and butt stocks.

The Russian Dragunov sniper rifle, as well as the various copies of it such as the
Yugoslavian M79, is a direct copy of the AK but with its dimensions enlarged to accommo¬
date the 7.62x54mmR full-sized cartridge. The Czechoslovakian VZ-58 overtly resembles
an AK; however, they are unrelated weapons. The VZ-58 was developed in Czechoslovakia
independent of Russian influence. However, the proliferation of the AK prevailed, and the
VZ-58 became a footnote in history. The VZ-58 is available as a semiautomatic rifle and is
imported from Czechoslovakia.

Sporting rifles using the Kalashnikov operating system have emerged onto the market.
The VEPR is manufactured by the Russian firm MOLOT, a joint stock company formed from
the Soviet-era Vjayskiye Polijany Arsenal. These sporterized versions bear a passing resem¬
blance to the military-style AK, the principal differences being the style of stock that is used
and other aesthetic qualities that give it a unique appearance despite its common heritage to
the AK under the skin. The VEPR is chambered in the popular U.S. and Russian calibers:
.223, .308, 7.62x39mm, and 5.45x39mm.

The Izhmash Saiga sporting rifles have been used as a base to reconfigure the firearm
into one resembling an AK. Such operations are undertaken by professional custom build¬
ers, gunsmiths, and even home builders. The reconfiguration process involves removing the
sport stock and other aesthetic modifications and may involve some remanufacturing to
modify the receiver and barrel to accommodate the design differences between Saiga-specific
components and those of the AK. The quality of reconfigured Saiga weapons or firearms
built on U.S.-made receivers using parts kits varies greatly.

Heckler & Koch G.3

The G.3 is a full-sized rifle chambered in the powerful 7.62x51mm cartridge (see
Figure 4.63). Aside from the Russian AK family of weapons, the G.3 would likely rate
as one of the most prolific firearms in the world. It entered service with the German

Figure 4.63 Sergeant Edward W. Deptola, U.S. Marine, fires a G.3-pattern rifle on the range at
Naval Station Manda Bay in Kenya. (U.S. Marine Corps image; photographer Lance Cpl. P. M.
Johnson-Campbell.)

292

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Bundeswehr in 1959 and has been adopted by more than 50 nations during its long career.
The G.3 was one of the preeminent rifles in the Western world, well known for its accu¬
racy and reliability. The G.3 rifle has always been associated with Heckler & Koch. The
design originated in Germany during the war years, but it was fully developed at the
Spanish firm CETME. Later the design reverted back to Germany, where H&K put it into
production. The G.3 was sold commercially in the United States initially as the G.3, later
the Model 41, and still later the Model 91. The 91 was banned from further importation
into the United States in 1989.

Attempts to sporterize the design were made by installing a thumbhole-style stock
and removing the flash hider, then designating the firearm as the SR9. Another rare vari¬
ant of the G.3/HK91 is the SR9(T). The ultraprecision PSG-1 and MSG90 rifles are both
directly descended from the G.3, albeit with significant ergonomic modifications to suit
the needs of a precision-rifle operator. Since that time, various U.S.-based firms have gone
about manufacturing clone receivers and using surplus parts kits supplied from around
the world to build up a rifle. H&K clones made in America by PTR Industries (formerly
JLD Enterprises) and Cohaire Arms can be almost indistinguishable from a distance,
and close-up inspection is needed to confirm. It has been reported that JLD Enterprises
obtained their G.3 tooling from INDEP, Portugal, who manufactured the G.3 under
license from H&K.

Several styles of stock and fore grip appear. The stock can be of a collapsible style or a
full-size fixed type. The stock and hand guard can be of wood or green or black polymer.
The G.3 is one of the most widely copied designs in the world, and many examples have
been made outside of Germany by firms other than H&K. Within Germany, G.3 produc¬
tion was shared by the Rheinmetall; their production is recognized by a pentagon on the
left side of the receiver on the magazine well. Most G.3-pattern rifles will be marked in this
location, although some may be marked on the right side of the receiver on the magazine
well, or on the receiver itself in the area of the selector switch. In addition to manufacturer
information, in some instances other markings may be noted such as markings indicat¬
ing use by a particular nation or military force. It was customary for H&K to indicate the
month and year of manufacture in a four-digit format, such as 11/63 for example.

The G.3 was not only manufactured in Germany, and not only by German firms. Across
the world, the G.3 is manufactured in Greece by Hellenic Defense Systems (EBO), in the
Sudan by the Military Defense Corp. as the Dinar, in Pakistan by the Pakistan Ordnance
Factories as the G3P4, in Turkey by MKEK as the G.3, and in Iran by the Iranian Defense
Industries Organization.

Previously, production took place in Portugal by Fabrica de Braco Prata (FMBP) and
by INDEP, short for Industrias Nacionais de Defesa; in Sweden by Forenade Fabriksverken,
or FFV; in France by Manufacture Nationale d’Armes de St. Etienne (MAS); in the United
Kingdom by Royal Ordnance and H&K Ltd.; in Nigeria by Defense Industries Corp.
(DICON); in Mexico by state-controlled arsenals; in Saudi Arabia; in Sweden by Carl
Gustav; in Norway by Kongsberg Vapenfabrik; in Bangladesh by Bangladesh Ordnance
Factory; in Thailand; and in Burma by state arsenal. Semiautomatic versions of the G.3
have been made in the United States by various manufacturers, some manufacturing
complete firearms, others manufacturing the receiver, which is mated to parts kits that
could have originated from almost anywhere. Until such weapons were barred from fur¬
ther importation into the United States, semiautomatic G.3 clones were sold in the United
States, primarily from Portugal and Greece, in addition to the H&K Models 41 and 91.

Firearms

293

Figure 4.64 Cameroon sailors undergo familiarization training with the FN FNC rifle circa
March 2010. (U.S. Navy image; photographer Mass Communications Specialist 1st Class Gary
Keen.)

H&K’s standard-setting MP-5 submachine gun is also produced in Sudan as the Tihraga,
in Turkey in several variants as the MP-5, in Greece, and in Iran as the MPT9K.

FN FAL and the FN FNC

The FAL-pattern rifle, meaning Fusil Automatique Leger, was designed by the Belgian
firm Fabrique Nationale (FN). Another version, the LAR (Light Automatic Rifle), was also
manufactured. A scaled-down version, the FNC (Fusil Nouveau Carbine), was developed
to chamber the 5.56x45mm cartridge (see Figure 4.64), while the FAL used the larger
7.62x51mm cartridge. Like the G.3 and the AK, the FAL has seen massive distribution
around the world, and FN was joined in manufacture of the FAL pattern by manufacturers
in many different countries. Two patterns of the FAL exist: one using English dimensions,
the other using metric dimensions—the principle difference being that there are two pat¬
terns of magazines that do not interchange. American manufacturers produced quanti¬
ties of semiautomatic FAL clones, primarily using foreign-sourced parts kits coupled with
receivers made either within the United States or imported, especially from IMBEL in
Brazil. Some semiautomatic FAL clones were manufactured in Brazil and imported into
the United States as complete firearms, marketed through Springfield Armory, and sold
under the model name SAR-48. The FN-FNC rifles in the United States originated from
Belgium until further importation was banned. Many FNC rifles in the United States were
lawfully converted to machine guns using legally registered sears.

The FAL and FNC, like the AR pattern, comprise two receivers (an upper and a lower)
that are joined together. Until 1981, the ATF considered the lower receiver of an FNC to be
the firearm; however this opinion was reversed in 2008 by ATF Ruling 2008-1.

The FNC rifle consists of two major assemblies, the upper assembly and the lower assembly.
The lower assembly houses the trigger, hammer, disconnector, safety/selector, and an auto¬
matic trip lever in the automatic version. It also incorporates a pistol grip and a magazine
release. The upper assembly houses a barrel that is attached to the upper assembly by means
of a barrel extension. It also houses the bolt carrier with gas piston affixed, gas tube and hand
guard, bolt, operating rod, and spring. The two assemblies are mounted together with a front

294

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

and rear takedown pin. Since 1981, ATF has classified the lower assembly as the receiver for
purposes of the GCA (Gun Control Act) and NFA (National Firearms Act).

ATF has reconsidered its classification of the lower assembly of the FNC rifle as the
receiver. The upper assembly of the FNC rifle is more properly classified as the receiver. The
upper assembly of the FNC rifle houses the bolt and provides a connection point for the bar¬
rel. Moreover, the upper assembly is classified as the receiver on similar types of firearms,
to include other FN rifles, such as the FN FAL and FN SCAR. Reclassification of the upper
assembly as the receiver will also allow the continued installation of a lawfully registered sear
into an FNC rifle because no modification to the receiver, which is the upper assembly, is
required to properly install the sear. (Sullivan 2008)

Modular Weapon Systems Concept

The concept of the modular weapon system was first touted by the inventor of the AR-15
rifle, Eugene Stoner. Stoner put forth the idea that a firearm could be conceptualized and
engineered in such a way that it could be reconfigured to suit a wide variety of applica¬
tions. In theory at least, the concept makes perfect sense; it allows a force to utilize a single
pattern of firearm, thus reducing logistical issues, and permits a simplified training regi¬
men on the single weapon; hence every operator could conceivably operate the weapon.
At the heart of the modular weapon system is the basic receiver. To facilitate user or mis¬
sion requirements, the basic receiver could be outfitted with various barrels, stocks, and
other accessories to produce any possible configuration, ranging from a basic infantry rifle
to a carbine, precision rifle, or a general-purpose machine gun. Stoner’s first effort was
the Model 63, which saw limited service with U.S. Navy SEAL teams during the Vietnam
conflict; however, the concept did not advance further. The concept, however, is not dead.
Arguably, the M16 has evolved into a modular weapon system, as the basic receiver design
and layout has been used to produce not only a basic infantry rifle, but also innumerable
precision rifles such as the Knights Armament SR-25, the carbine variant M4, and even a
squad automatic in the form of the Colt Automatic Rifle, which has replaced the Colt Light
Machine Gun, although the change appears to be in name only, as both appear to be func¬
tionally identical. An interesting variation from the basic M16 design, the Colt Automatic
Rifle fires from an open bolt, the quintessential feature of firearm designed for a sustained-
fire role (Colt Defense 2003).

In 2005, Lewis Machine and Tool, a manufacturer of AR-pattern rifles, announced
the release of its Monolithic Rail Platform (MRP). Designed for the AR-15/M16 weapon
platform, the MRP is a single-piece aluminum upper receiver that mates to any AR lower
receiver and offers the capability to quickly change barrels. Barrel lengths range from 10.5
inches to 18 inches. The upper receiver itself is available in two different sizes, a standard
length and a CQB (Close Quarter Battle) length. In addition to reconfiguring the barrel to
suit different needs, the receiver architecture supports multiple calibers and can be changed
by installing the appropriate barrel and replacing the magazine and bolt carrier group
(Lewis Machine & Tool 2011). The MRP is available in the traditional gas-impingement
operating system or a gas-piston driven system. The entire length of the upper receiver is
made up of the U.S. military standard M1913 “picatinny rail,” allowing for any accessory
with the rail interface to be mounted and used. The MRP concept was a very radical con¬
cept and one that has had much influence on the progression of the AR-15/M16 platform.

Firearms

295

Lewis Machine & Tool (LMT) further enhanced their AR-15/M 16 platform when they
announced in January 2009 that they were offering a “dual operating performance sys¬
tem.” According to a press release by the company, this is the first such system that permits
“operators to quickly change a direct gas impingement to a piston system operation to fit
any scenario” (Lewis Machine & Tool 2009). This dual operating system stems from the
Monolithic rail platform concept, yet maintains commonality with other AR-15/M16 plat¬
form firearms.

Lewis Machine & Tool achieved a major milestone with their Monolithic rail platform
concept when it was awarded a contract to supply the British Ministry of Defense with a
.308 (7.62x51mm) precision rifle, designated by the British as the L129A1. The commercial
Model LM308MWS (.308 chambered Monolithic rail platform) served as the basis for the
L129A1, likely with some minor additions or alterations made to suit the preferences of the
customer. There can be no doubt that the LMT design was in direct competition with other
manufacturers marketing their versions of modular weapon systems.

Fabrique Nationale (FN) has capitalized on the modular concept with the advent of
a completely new rifle. In February 2006, the prototype for a new rifle system—called
SCAR (Special Operations Forces Combat Assault Rifle)—was introduced. FN developed
the SCAR specifically to compete for a U.S. Special Operations Command contract for a
new rifle. Testing and selection of candidate rifles to meet a specification called for by the
U.S. Special Operation Command had begun several years prior, with the FN SCAR being
selected in 2004. In May 2007, the SCAR had moved forward into limited production and
further testing, which was expected to be followed by actual deployment of the weapon
system at the end of 2007. In October 2007, FN announced that the SCAR would be avail¬
able to law enforcement customers in 2008. At the end of 2008, the SCAR-16S was shipped
to FN dealers in the United States. It was not until July 2010 that the SCAR-17S entered
the U.S. civilian market. The delay is undoubtedly attributed to FN meeting contractual
demands from the military.

The SCAR appears to be influenced heavily by the AR-15/M16. The SCAR has two
receivers: The lower is constructed of polymer, and the upper receiver is one piece and
constructed of aluminum. It is apparent that FN chose to use the M16 as an inspiration
in developing the lower receiver unit because the layout of the controls is the same; even
the same style grip is used. However, the grip is fastened using a hexagonal head screw
as opposed to the mil-spec flathead screw. It is presumed that the military-version SCAR
utilizes a flathead screw, like mil-spec M16 grips. Unlike the M16, the SCAR features a
magazine release and safety/selector switch that are ambidextrous. The standard M16-
pattern magazine is utilized, and any such magazine or drum will function with the SCAR,
although FN offers a magazine. The FN magazine is subtly different, using the now widely
accepted no-tilt follower, but the body is constructed of a heavier grade steel and comes in
several colors. Only the exposed portion of the magazine is colored; the portion that sits
within the magazine well is not.

Internally, the differences are obvious; the SCAR is highly simplified in contrast to the
AR-15/M 16. The civilian SCAR features a flash hider of ornate design that was developed
specifically by FN. The military version flash hider is threaded to accept a quick-detach
sound suppressor. The barrel is chrome lined and is free floating.* The SCAR is gas-piston

A free-floating barrel is one that is only attached at the receiver; it does not contact any other part of the
firearm such as the stock.

296

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

operated and has a user-adjustable gas-pressure valve. The entire length of the upper
receiver comprises the M1913 rail system for the attachment of accessories. Additional rails
are located on the left, right, and lower part of the receiver. It is apparent that the SCAR
could readily support rapid caliber interchangeability with the replacement of the barrel,
bolt carrier, and magazine to support the dimensions of the different cartridge. Presently,
the SCAR 16, which is chambered in 5.56x45mm, and the dimensionally adjusted SCAR-
17, chambered in 7.62x51mm, are available. The S suffix on the line indicates a semiauto¬
matic carbine, but the SCAR is available as a select-fire weapon to authorized entities. The
latest addition to the SCAR line, the SCAR-H PR, was announced in an October 12, 2011,
press release by Fabrique Nationale that stated:

Derived from the innovative FN SCAR weapon system, the new SCAR-H PR precision rifle
is a tailored design for long-range precision fire applications while also providing capability
to fight close in. The SCAR-H PR features a 20" heavy barrel and a two-stage trigger mod¬
ule (Match type) allowing high accuracy. The folding butt stock and the cheek rest can be
adjusted, respectively in length and in height, without tools. The operator can therefore opti¬
mize the rifle to his requirements (such as body size and body armor). (Fabrique Nationale
Herstal 2011)

The SCAR features almost universal adjustments to suit the ergonomics of nearly any
operator. The stock will collapse to six different positions and also folds to the side. The
stock features an integrated cheek piece that is height adjustable. The charging handle can
be installed on either the left or right side of the receiver. The charging handle itself is the
punch to disassemble the bolt.

FNH USA was gracious enough to provide the author with a SCAR 16S for testing and
evaluation. The test subject was finished in the popular flat dark-earth color, a shade of
tan. The supplied magazine was equipped with a no-tilt follower and was finished in tan
with only a small portion of the top of the magazine revealing the black undercoating (see
Figure 4.65). Test firings consumed approximately 1,000 rounds of ammunition of mixed
manufacturer .223 and 5.56x45mm cartridges. No malfunctions occurred during the test
cycle. The test firearm was not cleaned, and lubrication was not added during the test
cycles. Addition of debris in the form of loose sand into the firearm did not impede per¬
formance either. When the test cycle was concluded, the amount of carbon accumulation

Figure 4.65 (See color insert.) The FN SCAR 16S, chambered in 5.56x45mm. Also pictured is
the FN two-tone STANAG magazine. (Image from author's collection.)

Firearms

297

within the firearm could be best described as “negligible.” The fully adjustable ergonomics
to suit the operator was greatly appreciated by different shooters.

The Bushmaster ACR (Adaptive Combat Rifle) represents another approach to the
modular weapon system concept. Bushmaster Firearms International, a longtime producer
of AR-pattern firearms, was acquired by Cerberus Capital Management in 2006 and joined
Remington Arms, DPMS, Advanced Armament Corp., Marlin, H&R, Dakota Arms, and
Parker Gun Works under the corporate umbrella of the Freedom Group, headquartered
in Madison, North Carolina. The ACR was a “collaborative effort between Bushmaster,
Magpul, and Remington” (Bushmaster Firearms International n.d.). The ACR concept
originated with Magpul Industries, who called it the Masada. Magpul is well known within
the firearms industry for creating some very innovative and effective products such as the
no-tilt follower for the AR-15/M16-pattern magazine as well as the polymer P-MAG, an
alternative to the standard aluminum or steel AR-15/M16 magazine.

The ACR lower receiver is constructed of polymer and closely resembles the general
layout of the M16, albeit with a more streamlined and modern appearance. The ACR can
be fitted with two different stocks, a fixed or folding type, both with an adjustable cheek
piece. The folding stock is also capable of telescoping within six positions. The ACR has
a multicaliber bolt carrier group that supports 5.56x45mm and the 6.8 SPC cartridges,
and it is not unreasonable to presume that other calibers of similar dimensions could be
accommodated with minimal modification to the basic design. The ACR operates using
the short-stroke gas piston, and the piston is adjustable. The upper receiver is a single-piece
extruded aluminum unit. The barrel can be quickly changed, and three different barrel
lengths are offered: KTA, l4Vi, and 18 inches. The ACR represents some of the most con¬
temporary thought processes in the next generation of rifle. In many ways, the ACR and
the FN SCAR bear strong similarities in the approach and philosophy that underscore the
overall design and features (see Figure 4.66). The ACR is available commercially as a semi¬
automatic rifle or as a select-fire weapon to authorized entities.

Figure 4.66 (See color insert.) A contrast between the upper receivers of the FN SCAR 16S (top)
and an AR-15 (bottom). The bolt carrier groups have been removed to contrast the differences
between the two. The SCAR is operated by gas piston; the AR uses the traditional gas impinge¬
ment. Installed on the AR upper receiver is a Knight's Armament RAS free-floating rail system,
an aftermarket flash hider, a MaTech rear sight, a Knight's Armament vertical fore grip, and an
Aimpoint Comp M4 using a Knight's Armament mount. (Image from author's collection.)

298

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Another entrant into the arena of the modular weapon system was Heckler & Koch. The
Models 416 and 417 are essentially the H&K versions oftheM16, chambered in 5.56x45mm
and 7.62x51mm, respectively. In consideration of other modular weapon contenders, the
416 and 417 appear somewhat conservative. H&K was among the first manufacturers to
begin utilizing a gas-piston operating system instead of gas impingement.

The HK-proprietary gas system uses a piston driving an operating rod to control the func¬
tion of the bolt, preventing propellant gases and the associated carbon fouling from entering
the weapon’s interior. This increases the reliability of the weapon and extends the interval
between stoppages. It also reduces operator cleaning time, heat transfer to the bolt and bolt
carrier, and wear and tear on critical components. (Heckler & Koch USA n.d.a)

Further elaboration on the system is made in information published by the company about
the HK417.

The HK417 uses the unique operating rod gas system pioneered by HK in the HK416 and
G36 weapons systems. This system uses a solid “pusher rod” operating rod in place of the
more common hollow gas tube normally employed in AR15-style rifles. (Heckler & Koch
USA n.d.b)

True to the form of H&K products, these rifles are produced to the highest quality
standards. Initially 416 and 417 were available only as machine guns, and thus sales were
restricted to military, law enforcement, and certain other authorized entities, but this
caveat only affected the receiver portion of the firearm, which is the lower receiver. As early
as 2007, very limited quantities of 416 upper receivers made their way onto the commercial
market in advance of general commercial sales, much to the consternation of H&K. In
keeping with the general movement of the modular weapon system concept and the direc¬
tion that AR-15/M16 platform weapons have gone, the 416 and 417 are adaptable to a wide
variety of applications, from carbine to a precision rifle. A departure from contemporary
thinking is the decision on the part of H&K not to chrome line the bore.

In a 2011 press release, HK-USA announced the availability of the civilian model of the
416, the MR556A1, available as a semiautomatic rifle but otherwise indistinguishable from
the 416 (Heckler & Koch 2011a). The upper receiver can now be purchased by itself and will
interface with any standard AR-15/M16 platform weapon as a retrofit. The 7.62x51mm ver¬
sion, called the MR762A1 was officially introduced by H&K to the market in January 2012.
Both rifles are manufactured in the United States by H&K in Newington, New Hampshire.
The 416 rifle has been taken into service by the armed forces of a number of nations under
client-specific model designations, including the U.S. Special Operations Command, which
apparently took the rifle into service in 2004 but may have withdrawn the weapon from
service in 2007.

The U.S. Marine Corps has taken an H&K IAR (Infantry Automatic Weapon) vari¬
ant of the 416 into service. Designated M27, it was approved for fielding in the summer of
2011. “The M27 IAR replaces the heavier M249 SAW (Squad Automatic Weapon), which
has been used by the Marines in Infantry Squads since the mid-1980s in the automatic rifle
role. Both weapons fire the 5.56 mm NATO cartridge” (Heckler & Koch USA 2011b). The
development of the IAR variant of the M16 by Colt Defense LLC was likely to compete for
this contract.

Firearms

299

Figure 4.67 The Remington Modular Combat Shotgun. The MCS is based on Remington's
870 shotguns, with some upgrades to suit its purpose as a combat shotgun. (Image from author's
collection.)

The Remington Modular Combat Shotgun (MCS) is a submodel of the Remington
Model 870 shotgun (see Figure 4.67). Remington has long marketed a plurality of sub¬
models of the 870 shotgun for law enforcement, government, and military users; however,
the MCS concept took this idea a step further. The MCS was developed with military and
law enforcement operations in mind to provide a shotgun-based system that afforded the
user maximum flexibility. The MCS is supplied as a kit that furnishes the operator with
the standard 870 receiver and three barrels: 10, 14, and 18 inches in length. The system is
furnished with two stocks: a traditional full-length stock and a short pistol grip. Both are
quickly attached using a proprietary interface system unique to the MCS. Other acces¬
sories included in the kit include screw-in chokes, a cleaning kit, and capacity-expanding
magazine extension tubes with the requisite magazine springs for use with these extension
tubes. The entire kit fits into a single case for ease of portability.

The philosophy behind the MCS was to provide maximum versatility to the user to
meet a variety of operational needs: a standard-duty shotgun with an 18-inch barrel, a
close-quarter battle shotgun with a shortened barrel, a breeching tool, or an accessory
weapon. One significant design difference between a standard 870 and the MCS is the
addition of the M1913 accessory rail atop the receiver. This rail system allows the user to
attach the normal accessories such as sights, flashlight, and so forth, but was installed more
specifically as an interface between the MCS and a host M4 rifle or other model weapon
of that pattern. A special attachment is used that connects to the MCS rail and the lower
rail on the front hand guard of the host firearm, the result resembling an M4 with an
M203 grenade launcher attached. The MCS is yet another iteration of the current trend
of modularizing weapons platforms; however, it was not the first of the concept. Knights
Armament, a manufacturer located in Titusville, Florida, manufactures a similar system
using the Remington 870 mounted to an M4, calling it the Master Key.

Firearms Identification Methodology

When the examiner is uncertain about the particulars of a firearm, every piece of obtain¬
able information from the weapon itself can be utilized to create at least a list of candidate
firearms to provide a positive identification.

1. Is the firearm a classic design? Does the firearm mimic a pattern/design of a known
firearm such as the 1911, AR-15, etc.?

2. What materials and methods are used to construct the firearm?

Machined steel receiver and components

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Stamped sheet metal using rivets or welding to assemble

Polymers used in construction

Metals other than steel such as aluminum

3. What, if any, markings exist on the firearm? All markings, however slight, should
be documented as to what they are and where on the firearm they are placed. To
facilitate this, the firearm may need to be partially disassembled, the grips removed,
etc. Since many markings cannot be replicated on a computer, such markings may
need to be hand drawn.

Manufacturer name, logo, address, and other geographical information

Presence of logos, icons, or trademarks on the grips

Presence of a ZIP code (the ZIP code was not implemented until 1963)

Make and model name or number
Identification of caliber, if possible

Indication that the firearm is or is not suitable for use with smokeless powder
Importer stamp(s)

Proof marks

Markings that indicate a secondary manufacturer or remanufacturer

Identification of a Firearm from Photographic or Video Images

The firearm examiner is often called upon to identify the particulars of a firearm using
images from video or still cameras. Cameras have become so prolific in modern life that
the average person is likely to be under some form of surveillance more often than any¬
one would like to believe. Cameras installed in public spaces and especially on private
property (such as retail outlets) as well as cameras on cellular phones, computers, and
other electronic gadgets have provided valuable evidence to police investigating all types
of crimes.

The appearance of firearms in video or still images is a common theme. A surveillance
video may reveal the brandishing of the firearm during the commission of the crime, or
persons may photograph or video themselves or others brandishing firearms as a matter
of posterity, especially in a criminal context. Identifying an individual with a particular
firearm may prove to be valuable criminal intelligence, especially if it can be placed in con¬
nection with crimes that have occurred. Another aspect is identifying a prohibited person
in possession of a firearm, which in and of itself is a crime.

Yet another facet is identifying the particulars of a firearm caught in an image. There
is no doubt that the experienced examiner can identify certain firearms by virtue of design
particulars that are specific to that certain model. The central problem to identifications
made from imagery is being able to say, with any degree of certainty, that the depicted
article is a firearm. With the availability of inert replicas, airsoft guns, and other props
that are modeled with extremely fine detail and accuracy on an original firearm, this may
prove too difficult to pass legal muster. That being said, if the exhibit under investigation is
so unique that it has no analogues, the case could be made that some detail is sufficiently
compelling that the examiner is confident in making an identification.

For such fine detail to be revealed, a great deal of photographic enhancement may
be needed. This is not unrealistic, given the resolution of contemporary digital imaging
devices of even mediocre quality. The scale of the object can be just as important as its
shape and distinguishing features. Scale is best ascertained using a photogrammetric

Firearms

301

Figure 4.68 An assortment of arms found in a clandestine cache in Iraq circa November 2003.
Note the different styles of AK rifles depicted. The bolt-action rifle at top center is a British
SMLE (Short Magazine Lee Enfield), likely dating back to World War I; the lower center is a
Mauser 98, likely 1920s or 1930s vintage. (U.S. Air Force image,- photograph by Suzanne M.
Jenkins, USAF.)

approach, which uses the size of an easily quantified object within the same image as a
comparison against the article of interest. Easily quantified objects include coins, paper
currency, and other standardized, industrially produced articles. When comparing a sus¬
pect exhibit in an image to a seized exhibit, characteristics between the two would have to
be compared to make any reasonable effort to attach the two as being one and the same.
Particulars that the examiner can cue in on are wear patterns toward the muzzle from
holster wear; unusual, nonstandard, or irregular grip styles or a feature of the grips such as
position of the grip screws; cracks, fractures, or other damage to the grip panels; or other
nonstandard, aftermarket, or unusual accessories to modify the firearm.

When witnesses and victims are interviewed during the course of an investigation
where a firearm is involved, it maybe difficult for the average person to identify even gen¬
eral details about the firearm. There are any number of reasons why a person’s attention
may not have been focused on the firearm or why that person’s focus may have squarely
been on the firearm. Persons who have had a gun pointed at them tend to focus exclusively
on the firearm, even to the exclusion of other obvious details. One practice that investi¬
gators can use is to have a series of flash cards in their kit that depict a typical example
of each type of firearm, such as revolvers, automatic pistols, various styles of shotguns
and rifles, etc. These examples can be artistically rendered silhouettes or photographs of
general examples of firearms taken on a neutral background. Such photographs should
provide a broad perspective of the general appearance of the weapon and exclude such
finer details as make and model. The depiction should allow any person, regardless of
language or familiarity with arms, to identify the type of weapon simply by its overall
design characteristics.

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

In the absence of using visual aids—and even if the witness identifies the firearm as
a particular type—it may be advisable to verify the terminology that the witness is using.
The terminology will be correct in the witness’s mind, but that does not make it an authen¬
tically correct term. One common example is a person who identifies the perpetrator as
wielding a machine gun. From the perspective of the witness, the perceived firearm was
a machine gun. However, is the witness’s definition of the term based upon perception
drawn from television, movies, video games, or news media? It is common for a layperson
to identify a weapon as a machine gun by virtue of appearance, having seen a similar¬
looking weapon in news reports or in popular entertainment media.

Firearm Markings

Serial Numbers

When the Gun Control Act was enacted in 1968, one of its provisions was the requirement
that all firearms be affixed with a unique serial number. Prior to the act being signed into
law, shotguns and .22 rifles were exempted from this requirement, but this did not pre¬
clude a manufacturer from affixing a serial number on any firearm as a matter of normal
business practice. Despite the lack of legal requirement, many manufacturers voluntarily
affixed serial numbers to arms, the major exception being shotguns and rifles branded
by department stores. Since 1968, all articles that are legally articulated as a firearm that
is manufactured or imported into the United States are legally required to have a serial
number affixed to the frame or receiver. As part of the serial number requirement, the act
further specified that serial numbers be unique; manufacturers could no longer replicate
serial numbers. Furthermore, importers of firearms could not replicate a serial number on
any other firearm they had previously imported, and in the case of a foreign-manufactured
firearm where foreign characters are used as part of the serial number structure that was
originally affixed by the manufacturer, the firearm would be assigned a new serial number
made up of Arabic numerals.

In locations where firearms are manufactured, relevant local laws may classify a fire¬
arm as any component that is used to assemble a firearm such as a slide, barrel, revolver
cylinder, significant smaller parts or subassemblies, and even grip panels, in addition to
the frame or receiver. Such firearms can be expected to have a serial number, or partial
serial number, marked on these components, as they are legally deemed controlled parts.
It has been a long-standing practice by many manufacturers to affix a serial number or a
partial serial number to firearm components other than the frame or receiver as a matter
of routine, whether there was a legal mandate to do so or not. There were several rationales
given outside of legal requirements to serialize even small parts.

One rationale was that serial numbering the small parts was part of a manufacturer’s
internal quality control measures. When a firearm was assembled, it was then tested and
inspected for proper function, typically by firing several “proof” loaded cartridges from
the firearm. If the firearm passed this firing test and the degree of accuracy, function, and
safety was guaranteed, the firearm was then moved to finishing. In this instance, most
manufacturers chose not to finish the firearm, instead preferring to leave the firearm “in
the white.”* This would allow for reworking of parts found out of tolerance or specification
that could be salvaged, or simply replacing the part altogether with a new part. Only when
the complete firearm passed inspection would it be moved forward for final finishing.
Since all parts intended to be finished cannot be accessed when the firearm is assembled,

The term in the white means that no finishing processes or operations such as applying coatings or pol¬
ishing have been performed. The firearm is constructed of parts that are in the natural material color.

303

304

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

it would have to be disassembled once again to access the individual components. Despite
the interchangeability of parts, in order to ensure that the same gun that was tested was in
fact the same composition of parts completed as a firearm that left the factory, certain parts
would be serialized so the same firearm using the exact same components was reassembled
after the finishing operations were complete. It was not uncommon for the finished firearm
to receive an additional step of quality control after finishing, ensuring that the finished
product met the requisite standard. The practice of serializing even small parts was once
prevalent across the industry; however, by the 1970s the practice had abated considerably,
especially in the United States.

European gun makers in particular were fond of serial numbering magazines,
although the practice is observed in arms from other parts of the world as well. Unlike
American practice, where magazines are considered consumable products and not nec¬
essarily intended for reuse (in a military setting), other entities consider the magazine
accountable equipment and part of the firearm, and simply disposing of the magazine once
it is empty is unacceptable. Serial numbering magazines also provided a measure of equip¬
ment accountability and inventory tracking.

Serial Number Structures and Practices

Prior to the enactment of the Gun Control Act, most manufacturers chose to use numerically
sequential serial numbers. When a new model firearm was rolled out, they would start with
serial number one and continued to issue numbers until the production run was finished.
Since replication of numbers was henceforth prohibited, even different model firearms made
by the same manufacturer would have a separate serial number series used. Modern firearm
serial numbers are more akin to vehicle identification numbers, most likely containing a
great deal of information beyond the mere sequence number. Certainly a sequential number
is in the serial number; however, manufacturers could include the numerical model number
and other attributes that would be revealed only if the number was deciphered. Serial num¬
ber practices are left to the manufacturer as long as they are compliant with applicable law
concerning repetition and placement on the frame or receiver (see Figure 5.1). Manufacturers
may opt for separate serial number ranges and sequences, using prefixes and suffixes, which
are specific to a certain model, including special serial number ranges for situations such as
limited production runs and commemorative and presentation arms.

An often-encountered error on Smith & Wesson revolvers is the erroneous identifi¬
cation of an affixed numerical sequence on the cylinder crane as the serial number. It is
true that Smith & Wesson revolvers can have serial numbers affixed to the frame where it
meets the crane, which would be the same number that is affixed to the bottom of the grip.
The number on the crane is likely to be a production or product number, which is gener¬
ally four or five characters in length. A person mistaking it for a serial number may try
to obliterate it. Practically all Smith & Wesson revolvers had the serial number affixed to
the bottom of the butt of the grip. If oversized grips were installed that obscured the bot¬
tom portion, then the grips would have to be removed to verify the serial number. More
vintage Smith & Wesson revolvers could conceivably bear a serial number on up to five
parts of the gun: the cylinder under the ejector star (see Figure 5.2), the bottom portion
of the barrel underneath the ejector rod, the frame near the cylinder crane, the butt, and
possibly inscribed by pencil on the inside of either grip panel. An alternative to the bottom
of the butt would be the front strap of the grip underneath the trigger guard. Due to the

Firearm Markings

305

Figure 5.1 Taurus PT-145 PRO. Note that the serial number is marked in three places: the
slide, the barrel, and at the rear of the receiver above the grip. Only the frame number can be
used to identify the firearm. (Image courtesy of Taurus International Manufacturing, Inc.)

Figure 5.2 Pictured is the cylinder of a nickel Smith & Wesson Model 1905 Military and
Police model. The serial number is stamped on the cylinder, as well as on other parts. This is
an all-matching gun,- no parts have been replaced. (Image from author's collection.)

306

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

prevalence of switched grips and the switching of parts, the frame-affixed number, the one
at the bottom of the butt, must be relied upon as the actual serial number; however, if there
is sufficient confidence that the other parts are original, then these parts could be refer¬
enced to assist in reconstructing an obliterated, defaced, or altered frame number. Smith &
Wesson auto pistols most generally have the serial number affixed to the frame only, either
on the side or the bottom of the frame. In the case of second- and third-generation auto
pistols, a serial number may be found stamped in the frame underneath the left grip panel.

Vintage Colt revolvers were profusely marked with serial numbers, with the frame
number being affixed to the bottom of the frame in front of the trigger guard. Adjacent to
this number could be a serial number affixed to the trigger guard, and another on the bar¬
rel. On vintage Colt derringers, as well as certain other revolver models, the serial number
is affixed to the bottom of the butt and on the grip portion of the frame underneath the
grip panel. Modern-era Colt revolvers generally could be found to have serial numbers
affixed in three places: the cylinder crane, the frame behind the cylinder crane, and inside
the left side plate, requiring its removal to be seen. The actual serial number is that which
is affixed to the frame; however, this does not prevent the other numbers from being used
as a reference if the examiner is comfortable enough that the gun is completely original
and there is confidence that a partially restored serial number will mesh with these other
numbers. Colt reproductions of vintage revolvers mimic period revolvers, except that the
serial numbers are affixed to the bottom of the frame only, in front of the trigger guard.
Investigators are cautioned that markings that appear on the bottom of the butt or on the
back strap, including police, military, security, or national property markings and asset
numbers, could be mistaken for a serial number. Vintage Colt revolvers can have the serial
number affixed to the frame on the grip, visible only when the grips are removed. If the
investigator is uncertain about the vintage of the specimen under inquiry, all areas should
be examined for the potential presence of a serial number. Colt-manufactured 1911 and
1911A1 pistols typically had a serial number stamped on the back of the slide, visible only
when the hammer was cocked, in addition to the frame affixed number. The 1911 and
1911A1 pistols made by government contractors typically did not include a serial number
anywhere other than on the frame. Other Colt pistol models often have serial numbers
affixed inside the slide in addition to the frame-affixed number.

For the most part, affixing serial numbers is now a matter of finding sufficient real
estate on the frame or receiver, particularly with respect to handguns and more so on small-
framed handguns. Long guns do not generally face the same space issue. Regardless of the
manufacturer, most serial numbers on revolvers follow the general practice of being affixed
on the bottom of the butt, on the interior of the frame adjacent to the cylinder crane, or on
either side of the frame, but not including a removable side plate. AK-pattern firearms gen¬
erally have the true serial number stamped on either side of the receiver, although military
AK rifles tended to be marked on the left side of the barrel trunnion. AK receivers manu¬
factured in the United States tend to have their identification information, including serial
number, stamped on the bottom of the receiver in front of the magazine well. The majority
of AR-pattern firearm builders prefer to stamp the serial number and other identification
information on the left side of the lower receiver on the magazine well. Since the upper
receiver is not considered the firearm, no identification markings should be expected to be
found there, other than that of a manufacturer who opts to place their name or trademark
for marketing or product identification purposes. Polymer-frame firearms do not have the
serial number stamped directly into the polymer. Instead, the number appears on a metal

Firearm Markings

307

plate that is molded into the polymer or is a portion of metal that is “windowed” to provide
a spot for the serial number. These plates can appear on the bottom or on either side of the
receiver.

A firearm that has another firearm within or attached to it will bear separate serial
numbers. For example, a suppressed firearm will have a serial number affixed to the host
weapon, but the suppressor, itself a firearm, will have a unique serial number attached.
There may be instances where the suppressor may be serial numbered to match the host
gun, but this is purely dependent on the manufacturer to make such an accommodation. A
host firearm that has a registered full-auto sear installed will also have two serial numbers;
the sear itself will have to be accessed to verify its own serial number, although a registered
receiver with a full-auto sear will have only the receiver serial number, since the auto sear
is a part of that receiver and not separately installed.

Firearms Absent Serial Numbers

Historically, most firearms were affixed with a serial number by the manufacturer prior to
the Gun Control Act requiring the practice. In the case of firearms without serial numbers,
omitting the serial number was likely done as a matter of cost savings by eliminating that
part of the operation and the bookkeeping associated with it. It is the practice of many
manufacturers to postpone serializing the firearm until it has satisfied all in-house quality
control measures and is ready to package. Again, this is logical as a matter of economy and
paperwork reduction. Once a firearm is issued a serial number, it becomes accountable.
Should there be complications from production, those firearms would have to be written
off and documented as such, thereby creating additional bookkeeping burdens.

Untold thousands of weapons were retained as souvenirs and carried or mailed home
by soldiers, sailors, marines, and airmen at the end of the First World War, the Second
World War, and even into more modern times from the wars in Vietnam, Korea, Iraq, and
Afghanistan. With the occupation of Germany and Japan and the liberation of the other
nations that had been previously occupied by the Axis powers, armaments factories were
captured, and many GIs’ souvenir of choice was firearms. A great many firearms were cap¬
tured on the battlefield and retained, but many were also taken from captured factories.
Firearms captured at the factory may have been assembled but not reached the point where
a serial number would have been affixed when production was interrupted. Bona fide fire¬
arms of the era without serial numbers can be treated as exempt from the serial number
requirement, as they are of historical value. The same arguments cannot necessarily be
made for war-trophy arms brought home from other conflicts post-1968, except perhaps in
the case of antique arms, those made before 1899. Numerous examples of unmarked Model
1911 and 1911A1 pistols bearing no serial numbers, and in some cases no markings what¬
soever, presumably manufactured during the World Wars under military contracts, reside
in the hands of collectors. In collector circles, such arms are called lunch-box guns, as they
are thought to have been smuggled out of the factory in a worker’s lunch box. As with cap¬
tured foreign arms brought home as souvenirs, these firearms are generally exempted from
serial number requirements due to their age and collector status.

Firearms bearing no serial numbers, which have been established to have been manu¬
factured after 1968 but that bear no indications of attempts to remove, obliterate, or alter
the factory serial number should be treated with a degree of suspicion. One plausible
answer to such a firearm suggests that the firearm may have been stolen from the factory

308

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

or that the frame, receiver, and possibly other components were stolen or obtained and
used to construct a firearm from a receiver or frame that was never issued a serial number.
Another plausible explanation is that the firearm is a homemade article and a serial num¬
ber was not affixed. A homemade firearm should generally be instantly recognizable due
to the relatively crude construction compared with professionally manufactured firearms.

Firearms Bearing Multiple, Different Serial Numbers

Firearms are encountered that bear multiple serial numbers. In such cases, the serial num¬
ber of record is the number that is affixed to the frame or receiver, to the exclusion of
numbers that appear on the barrel, slide, stock, or other non-gun parts. Such a firearm may
have been restored or rebuilt using parts from other donor firearms installed onto another
frame or receiver to make a complete firearm. Such examples maybe of investigative inter¬
est if there is suspicion that parts were replaced in an attempt to thwart an investigation
by swapping a barrel or other replacement to remove the potential for making ballistic
comparisons against other evidence in the case. In keeping with the serial number provi¬
sions of the Gun Control Act, firearm importers have often affixed new serial numbers to
imported arms, and the original factory serial number is not used for recording purposes.
When examples of this practice are observed, the differences are readily apparent by way
of the location on the receiver where the new number was affixed, as well as the manner in
which the affixing took place, such as laser engraving or electroscribe.

Renumbered Firearms

Surplus vintage military firearms have often been transferred around the world or were
retained by a nation when captured from the opposition in the course of conflict. Such
firearms were often “re-arsenaled” to remanufacture usable firearms using donor firearms
that would be scrapped. In some instances, the original serial number would be defaced
and a new number applied. Surplus World War II-era German K98k rifles that have
emerged from Russian stockpiles are routinely seen with defaced serial numbers and new
numbers applied by electroengraving. This is even true with firearms of Russian origin that
underwent refurbishment postwar. Firearms were also refurbished in arsenal postconflict
by the nation when the firearms were returned to inventory at the armory, which can also
result in a mismatch of serial numbers on different parts, if numbered parts other than the
receiver were used. A nation or military force that came into possession of foreign arms
may have decided to attach their own serial number or other inventory control numbers
to the firearm. As is the standard rule, the serial number affixed to the frame or receiver is
the proper identified serial number, regardless of the attachment of other numbers to other
parts. If a firearm was issued a new serial number as part of the process of refurbishment,
typically the original serial number is obliterated or defaced by peening or overstamping
(see Figure 5.3).

Firearms with obliterated or illegible serial numbers are eligible to have a new serial
number assigned by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (BATFE).
This service is available to owners seeking to reclaim their firearms recovered after theft or
loss and where the serial number was compromised. Obviously, the serial number would
have been restored and identified to the legitimate owner. There is a process involved that
requires the coordination of the law enforcement agency in possession of the firearm and

Firearm Markings

309

Figure 5.3 (See color insert.) This 1913 vintage Colt 1911 has had its original serial number
ground from the frame, and it has been renumbered. It is apparent that this was historical and
likely done at the factory or at a government arsenal. The United States Property marking has
also been obliterated from the frame by grinding and then stamping a series of X's across that
part of the frame. Students of the 1911 will note the crude stamping as well as the die being
inconsistent with that used by Colt. (Image from author's collection.)

the local BATFE field office. Older firearms with government-assigned serial numbers
carried a serial number prefix of IRS, for Internal Revenue Service; the prefix was later
changed to ATF, for Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. Older firearms that did not have
factory-affixed numbers and arms where the serial number has become illegible are also
eligible for this service.

Examiners should familiarize themselves with serial number practices and struc¬
ture by manufacturer. In many cases, the manufacturer can be contacted directly, and
inquiries can be made to them about serialization. This may assist in finding a serial
number’s location and/or what format the serial number will take. Occasionally, a fire¬
arm may have a production number affixed that has no immediate attachment to the
serial number, but it may be possible to use that production number as a serial number
derivative to determine, with the assistance of the manufacturer, what the serial num¬
ber is.

BATFE Serial Number Traces and E-Trace

The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (BATFE) is the central reposi¬
tory of firearm transaction records in the United States and its territories. When a firearm
is sold through commercial channels by licensed entities, the transaction is documented
through an Acquisitions and Disposal log, typically referenced as the “A&D log.” The retail
purchaser of a firearm through a licensed dealer is legally required to complete a standard¬
ized form, Form 4473, also called the “yellow form,” which identifies the purchaser, the
firearm, and the license holder who is disposing of (selling) the firearm. Until relatively
recently, Form 4473 was completed on paper; however, an electronic version of the form is
now available and is used in lieu of the paper document. Firearms dealers are required to
permanently maintain these records until they leave business, at which time the records are
to be forwarded to the BATFE. Certain states also require additional forms to be completed
in addition to the 4473. In such instances, the state or locale would maintain these firearms
transactions records. Law enforcement agencies can—either directly or through their local
BATFE Field Office—request a firearms trace through the BATFE National Tracing Center

310

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

(NTC). The trace request form can be completed and transmitted by fax, mail, or elec¬
tronically through the e-Trace program. Only law enforcement agencies may apply and be
accepted to become e-Trace users. A trace query is made against a firearm by serial number
only, not by an individual’s name or other parameters. There are tremendous investigative
benefits to tracing firearms seized pursuant to criminal investigations, including:

Confirming ownership of a found firearm where an individual is attempting to claim
the weapon but cannot provide substantial documentation to prove ownership
The identity of a firearms purchaser from a licensed dealer
The dealer from which the firearm was obtained

When the firearm entered the chain of distribution and sale, which could implicate
or eliminate a suspect firearm from consideration in a crime
Trends and patterns of individuals purchasing firearms and transferring them to
prohibited individuals (so-called straw purchasers) and firearms traffickers
The potential to provide other investigative leads in firearms-related crime
The firearm-type classification as originally manufactured: rifle, handgun, etc.

Methods Used to Apply Serial Numbers

Serial numbers can be affixed to the firearm using any number of different methods that
are at the discretion of the manufacturer. The method used by a particular manufacturer
is generally considered to be the method that is most cost effective for that particular firm
and the manner in which the affixed numbers can change. The federal requirements for
placing a serial number were changed effective January 30, 2002, and articulated in 27
CFR 178.92(a)(1), which required that serial numbers be stamped, engraved, or cast to
a minimum depth of 0.003 inch and in print no smaller than 1/16 inch. This standard
also included other required information such as the manufacturer name, city and state,
importer, caliber, model, remanufacturer, and so forth. The most common modern meth¬
ods for affixing a serial number are:

Laser engraving
Stamping

Pin stamping or dot peening (also called dot-matrix engraving)

Roller marking
Electroscribe

In order to mark the serial number, mechanical force is applied to stampings and roller
marking as the means to affix the serial number. This compresses the material, resulting in
a deformation of the crystalline structure of the material well below the surface where the
force was applied. As the material is compacted by the force applied to affix the serial num¬
ber, it does so in such a way that it imparts the imprint of the force, resulting in a character
that potentially is restorable even if the surface is significantly damaged. Laser etching or
engraving does not cause this phenomenon to occur, yet laser-engraved serial numbers
are restorable by the same methods. Laser engraving is a generic term used to refer to
any number of similar methods that use a laser beam to mark an object. Laser-marking
devices have distinct advantages over mechanical marking processes because there are no

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311

mechanical parts to wear through repetitive use. Lasers also can work in very small areas
and leave very clean markings behind.

Each of the methods described has distinctive characteristics that show the examiner
how the serial number and other information is affixed. Pin stamping, dot-matrix stamp¬
ing, and dot peening are essentially the same type of operation. This style of marking
consists of a series of dots formed in the shape of the represented letter or number. Roller
markings are among the oldest methods of affixing data to the firearm. A die is fabricated
containing the necessary information and it is machine-rolled across the surface of the
firearm, leaving behind the impression. Stamping can take the form of die stamping by
machine or by hand stamping using a set of dies and striking the die onto the surface.

Manufacturers may use more than one single method to apply identification informa¬
tion such as manufacturer, model, and caliber. This is particularly the case in two sce¬
narios: firearms that are imported into the United States and firearms that are built using
a parts kit that is installed on a different receiver or frame. In the case of an imported
firearm, the original markings would be affixed by the manufacturer using any of the
described methods. However, when the firearm is imported into the United States, the
importer must also affix its specific information somewhere on the frame or receiver. In
the case of firearms that are manufactured offshore and then imported into the United
States by a subsidiary of the same company, such as Sig Sauer in Germany and Sig Arms
in the United States, the method of marking will be to a high standard and will not be
different in order to maintain the aesthetic quality of the firearm. Firearms imported by
third-party organizations generally do not receive the same quality of craftsmanship and
attention to detail. Quite frequently, imported arms are pin stamped or electroscribed just
enough to satisfy legal requirement. The electroscribed markings tend to be of the poorest
quality and are often difficult to read under the best of conditions. Importers are required
to stamp their corporate name and the city and state where they are located. The firearm
caliber and nation of origin also appear. Commonly recognized abbreviations are accept¬
able when affixing this information.

In addition to the person-readable information that is impressed into the firearm, some
manufacturers have adopted the QR (Quick Response) code that will also appear alongside
the human-legible information. The QR code can be read by a plurality of readers, includ¬
ing camera-equipped smart phones, tablet devices, and other devices that have the requi¬
site application installed on them. The QR code is capable of holding a tremendous amount
of information and could include not only the serial number, make, model, and caliber, but
also could include other production information as well (see Figure 5.4). Smith & Wesson
has bar-coded serial number information on the frames of their Sigma series pistols since
releasing the line to market. The bar code is located adjacent to the person-legible serial
number on the bottom of the receiver on a metallic plate embedded in the polymer. In a
case where a Sigma series pistol has an obliterated plain-character serial number but the
bar code remains reasonably intact, it may be possible to have the serial number identified
with the assistance of the manufacturer.

Obliteration, Alteration, or Defacing of Serial Numbers

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the term obliterate as, “to utterly remove from
recognition or memory; to remove from existence, destroy utterly all trace, indication,
or significance of; to cause to disappear, to make undecipherable or imperceptible by

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 5.4 A Remington Model 770 rifle; note the dot-matrix pattern QR code. (Image from
the author's collection.)

obscuring or wearing away.” The term alter is defined as, “to make different without chang¬
ing into something else; to become different,” and the term deface is defined as, “to mar
the appearance of; to injure by effacing significant details.” Generally, the three terms may
appear to be interchangeable; however, this should not be considered to be the case. Despite
the common definitions given, there is context and shade that should be read into each of
them. Defacing, for example, may suggest an incomplete removal, while obliteration would
suggest that the serial number has been completely removed and no trace has been vis¬
ibly left behind. Contrast this with the term alteration, where a serial number is somehow
changed in substance while remaining intact. Examiners are encouraged to use their words
carefully in written reports as well as in verbal testimony and to maintain a continuity of
verbiage and not interchange the use of words throughout the process.

Methods Observed Used to Alter, Obliterate, or Deface Serial Numbers

The destruction of a serial number on a firearm seems illogical at best. In every venue, the
mere possession of a firearm without a serial number is a crime, and the evidence of attack
is generally quite apparent, even by casual observation. It stands to reason that possessing
such a firearm would only call more attention to the situation than if the firearm had been
just left alone, notwithstanding the circumstances under which the firearm comes under
investigation. Despite the irrational nature of the urge to obliterate, deface, or alter the
serial number, this practice has persisted. There are numerous ways to go about removing
the serial number, and the majority involve some form of mechanical force, although this
should not be construed to mean that this is the only possible means.

Serial numbers may be attacked by several methods—primarily by the use of tools and
instruments such as grinders, punches, drills, pointed or edged objects, or perhaps even
chemical abrasives in an attempt to remove the serial number from the frame or receiver.
The presence of grinding marks, concave surfaces, scratches, peening marks, or other sur¬
face irregularities should draw the immediate attention of the person seizing the firearm,
even if the attempt is superficial and does not appear to fully obscure the serial number.
Because the weapon’s finish has been attacked, the area generally becomes susceptible to
rust, which will only further conceal the information.

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313

Figure 5.5 A scratching type attack on a pistol. As can be seen, the obliteration was only
partial, and the number was restored chemically with relative ease. (Image from author's
collection.)

The tool used to mechanically attack a serial number has great bearing on the realized
success of the attack. The tool of choice is frequently not ideal for the task, and is often
softer than the material that it is being forced against, resulting in degradation of the tool
perhaps more so than the surface under attack. This is especially the case where hardened
finishes or especially harder materials were used to construct the firearm. The deposition
of the tool material onto the attacked surface may leave the obliterator with the supposition
that the attack was more successful than it actually was. In such a scenario, using a soft
brush and oil will generally clean the attacked area, revealing the serial number under¬
neath the deposited material.

Serial number attacks are grouped into several broad categories, based upon the type
of attack conducted.

Scratching

The surface is attacked by a narrow-bladed, wide-bladed, or pointed object. Ordinarily
the scratching is done along the horizontal axis of the firearm by virtue of ease of manip¬
ulation and tool-to-surface interaction (see Figure 5.5). Common tools used in such an
attack include flathead screwdrivers, awls, punches or ice picks, electric scribes, chisels,
scrapers, engravers, and even nails. The general characteristics present in such an attack
are an irregular, nonparallel series of lines that tend to wander erratically across the
surface. The appearance of multiple tool marks should be assessed, as quite often the tool
used to attack the firearm is made of a softer material, thereby wearing the attacking tool
down.

Gouging

A gouging type of attack attempts to physically remove the material that the serial number
is stamped upon, whereas a scratching attack is intent on damaging the material. Gouges
are typically done using a chisel or similar tool, often in concert with a hammer. Gouging
may result in an uneven rectangular-shaped void left where the serial-number-bearing
surface was removed by first damaging the surface around it and then forcing it out, or by
simply forcing the tool into the material to a given depth and attempting to pry or roll off
the number-bearing surface.

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Grinding, Sanding, or Other Abrasives

In such an attack, a concave impression is left behind, providing clear evidence of a grind¬
ing wheel being used. In most instances, the grinding was made on the same plane as the
grinder’s rotation, leaving long, parallel lines. Grinding where the attack occurs perpen¬
dicular to the rotation of the working tool edge is not often seen. Such attacks can be called
angular or cross-grain attacks, depending on how the tool was applied to attack the sur¬
face. Handheld rotary tools, bench grinders, and electric drills with grinding or polishing
bits or wheels are all candidate tools for this type of attack. The style of bit, wheel, or tool
edge will have great bearing on the final appearance, ranging from smooth to an extremely
coarse depression resulting from the attack. In the case of hand files being used as the
instrument, the file cut is the measure by which the coarseness of the file’s teeth is identi¬
fied. The range of cut from smoothest to coarsest is very (or dead) smooth, smooth, second
cut, bastard, and rough. Correspondingly coarser teeth have the net effect of shaving away
more material with fewer strokes. If an electric tool is used, it is likely that only individual
characters will be attacked, leaving the spaces between the characters alone. Since the tool,
such as an electric scribe, must be pressed into the surface, the amount of pressure and the
strength of the working bit will result in impressions of irregular depth and tend to result
in a stippled appearance of small impressions of irregular, often overlapping spacing.

Drilling

A power drill using any sized bit can be used to remove material. The result of such an
attack is a series of irregularly spaced circular, sometimes overlapping, holes of various
depths. A hand drill or drill press could be used in such an attack.

Punch

A punch may be used to peen out a serial number by repetitious blows to the affected area.
The compression of the punch into the material causes its displacement and disfigures any
markings, thereby potentially rendering them illegible.

Peening

A surface that has been peened has been mechanically attacked using blows from a ham¬
mer. A ball-peen hammer is specifically designed to bend and shape metal; however, this
does not preclude other types of hammers from being used. Peening differs from punch¬
ing, as the term is used in the context of a blunt striking object being employed as opposed
to a shaped instrument that serves as an intermediary to deliver the force to the surface
under attack.

Filling

A marking that has been filled has had the area covered with another material. Cold filler
may be used, and this can include using a finish material similar to the factory-applied fin¬
ish. Fillings may also be accomplished by soldering, welding, or other similar techniques
where such materials can be used to plug the depressed surfaces bearing the markings.
As an extra measure, this area can then be filed or sanded to smooth over the attack in
an attempt to cosmetically conceal the remnants of any markings. Filling can be done on
its own or in conjunction with another destructive method, with the filling being used
to further reduce the chances of a successful restoration. A variation of filling is to use

Firearm Markings

315

intense heat generated by plumber or cutting torches to deform the surface to the point of
rendering it illegible. However, thermal attacks are not widely used due to the inherent risk
of destroying the firearm by deformation when an excessive amount of heat is applied for
prolonged periods.

Chemical

Caustic chemicals can be used to eat or etch away at the surface bearing the serial number.
Chemically destructive methods are exceptionally uncommon due to the relative lack of
availability of the caustic agents required and the knowledge of chemistry needed to know
what agent should be used.

Mechanical Serial Number Restoration Techniques

The object of serial number restoration is to get below the damaged areas to reveal the com¬
pression markings deep in the metal. When viewing the damage at the surface, examiners
should determine what material was used to construct the firearm and then ascertain what
method was used to attack the serial number. The examiners should inspect all surfaces
of the firearm, using their accumulated knowledge to determine if the serial number or a
partial serial can be found on another part of the firearm. Although this number cannot be
guaranteed as being the true serial number affixed to the frame or receiver, it may give the
examiner a basis from which to work. In the case of a partially restored number, the pres¬
ence of other numbers may fill the gaps or voids where restoration was not successful. This
statement is based upon the presumption that there is concurrence between the damaged
serial number and other numbers located elsewhere on the firearm.

Mechanical restoration techniques are often overlooked by many examiners who
prefer to go straight into the chemical restorative techniques, but the potential value of
mechanical restoration cannot be overlooked. Although mechanical restorations may not
suffice to totally restore a serial number, there is no guarantee that chemical methods will
succeed either. Mechanical restoration lies in the ability of the examiner to understand
how to use basic hand tools to repair the damage done to the surface bearing the serial
number. Depending upon the type of attack, as defined previously, the surface is left in an
irregular condition at a microscopic level. If debris and oxidation are present, these areas
should be cleaned thoroughly with a good-quality gun cleaner and a nylon-bristle brush.
Dedicated cleaners marketed expressly for firearms need not be the only option available;
other commercial cleaners suitable for use on metals are acceptable. In fact, it is advisable
to use a commercial cleaning agent that does not leave a residue behind. If the product does
leave a residue, the area should be thoroughly wiped out.

The examiner should first attempt to level out the material in the attacked area. It may
be that by simply refolding or flattening the attacked material that obliterated characters
may start to become more legible. Very fine files, i.e., the dead smooth and the smooth, but
not likely as harsh as a second-cut file, are used to flatten material that has been made jag¬
ged and irregular. This process in and of itself may start to reveal numbers. Some examin¬
ers prefer the use of polishing compounds such as jewelers rouge used with a low-velocity
buffer instead of, or in concert with, the file. Rotary-tool buffing heads are ideal in such
situations, inasmuch as the buffer is only mildly abrasive. As with all finishing procedures,
finer tools are used in succession, starting with the coarsest first. Emory boards and water¬
proof, fine-grit sandpaper can also be useful. A delicate hand is required when wielding

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

tools against the attacked surface. Remember that the amount of material that must be
removed or adjusted is in the thousandths of an inch or fractions of a millimeter. Heavy-
handed application of chemical agents or tools can simply remove any remaining vestiges
of the serial number altogether. Remember that attacks may be to various depths into the
material; it is not uncommon to see a deep penetration on one side the attack, and see the
depth lessen across the attack, where the pressure was reduced or the working head of the
instrument became less effective or had less contact over the course of the attack.

The examiner may find it helpful to create a bit of contrast in the characters that are
raised during the restorative effort. Commercially available document-correction fluid can
be applied with a fine brush to bring out hard-to-read characters. Be careful to avoid over¬
applying the fluid, or it will get into all the crevices. If a mistake is made, it is easily wiped
out with a towel or a nylon brush. Instead of correction fluid, various colors of chalk can
be used.

Traditionally, most firearms have been constructed of various grades and types of
metal, most commonly machine-grade steel, aluminum, or stainless steel, but more
recently, cast alloys and even compressed powdered metals have appeared. The prolifera¬
tion of the polymer-framed gun cannot be ignored either. Various restorative techniques
for use on metal have long been known, and restorative techniques for plastics have not
been unheard of, even before the appearance of the polymer-framed firearm. Surplus mili¬
tary arms often had a serial number stamped into the wooden butt stock. As discussed
in Chapter 4, there may be instances of conflicting information. In the case of a “force
match,” a prior serial number would have been crossed out or otherwise defaced and a new
number applied. This number cannot be accepted as the serial number because it is not the
frame-affixed number; however, it can serve as a basis to assist the examiner in recovering
the frame or receiver number. Age, refinishing, sanding, and routine wear and tear on the
wood may have rendered some of these markings somewhat illegible. An old gunsmith
trick to resurrect old and faded stock impressions or cartouches is to use steam applied
directly to the area where the markings are observed. This method is well established as a
good way to restore the collector value of the stock by resurrecting desirable marks.

Chemical Serial Number Restoration Techniques

Chemical restoration techniques have long been the staple of examiners trying to success¬
fully restore serial numbers. Restorative agents can be mixed on an as-needed basis by any¬
one with a sufficient knowledge of chemistry, or they can be purchased as a complete kit
from various forensic-supply houses. It is recommended that—before applying any restor¬
ative reagents—the users read and become familiar with the Material Safety Data Sheet for
the substance they will be using. There are variations in the materials used to manufac¬
ture firearms, so different restorative agents have been developed to suit these particular
materials, including various grades of steel, aluminum, and even polymer. These reagents
are well known and long established within the field for those familiar with restoration of
serial numbers. Common restoration reagents are used to attempt to restore an obliterated
serial number:

Acidic ferric chloride: ferric chloride, hydrochloric acid, water

Fry’s reagent: cupric chloride, hydrochloric acid, water

Hydrochloric acid: hydrogen chloride, ethanol, and water

Firearm Markings

317

Iron (III) chloride: ferric chloride and water
Nitric acid: nitric acid and water

Turner’s reagent: cupric chloride, hydrochloric acid, ethyl alcohol, water
Sodium hydroxide: sodium hydroxide and water

Recommended reagents for a particular material:

Brass: sodium sulfate

Cast iron: ammonium persulfate

Copper: ferric chloride, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid

Steel: hydrochloric acid or Fry’s reagent

Aluminum: sodium hydroxide, hydrofluoric acid

Nickel: ferric acid or hydrochloric acid

Polymers: ethyl ethanoate (also called ethyl acetate)

Before applying the restorative reagent, it is suggested a dam consisting of hobby-type
putty or plumbers putty be constructed around the area where the reagent will be applied.
This dam will serve to keep the reagents from leaking out from the application site. The
reagent can be applied using a dropper or by swabs. The working time for the reagents
ranges from instantaneous to upwards of half an hour and perhaps longer in more difficult
cases. The examiner is encouraged to err on the side of caution to prevent overuse of the
reagent, which will defeat the restorative effort. A chemical neutralizer should be included
in any restorative kit and should be at hand. The corrosive effects of the chemicals on the
treated surface cannot be ignored, and the restored information must be documented in
short order to prevent it being obscured and lost once again. It may take several applica¬
tions of the reagent to effect a successful restoration. Further application of reagent should
be by swab, allowing examiners to rub the reagent into the area they wish to restore; appli¬
cation of pressure may achieve better results.

Nondestructive Serial Number Restoration Techniques
Digital Imagery

Before application of restorative chemicals, it may be of benefit to attempt to recover at
least partial information from an attacked serial number or other information using a
nondestructive technique. The author has had success in using the digital camera and
photo-enhancement software. Good-quality digital photographs taken of the attacked
surface can be digitally enhanced to potentially discern letters and numbers through
the marred surface. Shifting the contrast, color, or reverse color (negative color) can
be quite productive in reading numbers that are illegible under normal, white light.
A succession of photographs can and should be taken over the course of the restor¬
ative effort, and they can always be referred back to at any step of the process to see if
the image can somehow be enhanced to provide additional clues or information. Using
photo-enhancement software is not generally well accepted in forensic circles, due to
the implications that suggest that photos may be altered; however, if the adjustments
are documented and can be replicated, this should satisfy legal questions that may arise.
Outside of using software, digital cameras, even inexpensive models, often have the

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Cartridges and Firearm Identification

capability of capturing images using creative-effects exposures such as black and white,
sepia tone, reverse color, and negative. More sophisticated cameras and experienced
users can adjust the color balance, contrast, and brightness onboard the camera to cre¬
ate the same effect.

X-Ray

X-ray may prove to be another viable nondestructive technique to read through the dam¬
aged surface. X-ray equipment is a standard fixture at hospitals, some clinics, and morgues.
Another possible source for X-ray equipment would be an explosive ordnance disposal
(EOD) unit. Frequently EOD units carry portable X-ray machines that are specifically
designed to handle smaller objects. The advantage of such a setup is immediate accessi¬
bility by law enforcement, and the equipment can be brought, deployed, and used almost
anywhere. Newer X-ray machines are digital, allowing for immediate capture of the image
and ease of portability and transfer of the captured digital images. The use of X-ray for
serial number restoration has long been contemplated and, like most techniques, prob¬
ably will not be ideal in all situations. Perhaps the best application for X-ray would be for
a serial number that has been filled in. X-ray would make the filling material transparent
and could reveal the surface underneath.

Ultrasonic Cavitation

A spin-off technology from NASA called “cavitation” was first reported in 1979. This
method was called the “NASA-Chicago State” process, and the report stated that the “pro¬
cess is advantageous because it can be applied without variation to any kind of metal, it
needs no preparatory work and number recovery can be accomplished without corrosive
chemicals; the liquid used is water” (Lewis Research Center 1979). The study utilized cavita¬
tion, the rapid formation of bubbles created by vibrations in the liquid medium. Cavitation
can be created in an ultrasonic cleaner such as those used to clean jewelry, firearms, and
other items that are small or have a lot of hard to reach places. As noted in the report,
“Because the vapor bubbles contain high energy, they etch, or pit, the surface of the metal
they strike” (Lewis Research Center 1979). These bubbles are not created by heat, but by
energy. It was reported that the cavitation-induced pitting of the surface around the area
where the serial number was applied resulted in a gradual restoration of the serial num¬
ber. The test subject depicted in the report showed very favorable results. The most likely
single greatest hurdle to using this technique is acquiring an ultrasonic tank large enough
to accommodate long guns. If this technique were to be used, then all other evidentiary
exams—DNA, fingerprints, and so forth—must be completed before immersing the article
in the tank for restoration of the serial number.

Magnetic Particle Inspection Process or Magnetic Flux

The Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) process (also magnetic flux, or magnaflux) is
another possibility for a nondestructive attempt at restoration of serial numbers. MPI was
originally intended as a method to study and detect defects or flaws in a ferromagnetic
object in applications such as welding, firearms manufacture, and shipbuilding. For obvious
reasons, this method is not effective on nonferrous materials. This method calls for the cre¬
ation of a magnetic field on the item to be studied, such as the firearm frame. This field, the
magnetic flux, flows across the article. The flow then “leaks” from the article, particularly
where there is disturbance on the article, such as an attacked surface that once bore a serial

Firearm Markings

319

number or other information. The operation can be performed in a “wet” environment by
immersing the study piece in water. In the water is a suspension of ferrous particulate that is
attracted to the area of attack. The procedure can also be performed in a dry setting, using
aerosol magnetic particulate. In an ideal scenario, this operation would rebuild a serial
number that had been attacked. According to Utrata and Johnson (2003), using fluorescent
magnetic particles resulted in better restoration, coupled with using ultraviolet light sources
to enhance contrast: “Better serial number recovery seems clearly possible using DC instead
of conventional AC electric power” coupled with good magnetic connections to the study
piece. The surface should be prepared using fine grit sandpaper or mild polish, and the mag¬
netic particle should be attempted first, before turning to chemical reagents.

Variations of Temperature as a Restorative Technique

Exposure to cold is a nondestructive restorative approach as reported by Cook and Rhoden
(1978): “After the area is polished (mirror finish) it is wiped over with dry ice, causing
a frosting of the metal. Again, the number may become visible on the frosted surface.”
Exposure to high levels of heat was also explored by Cook and Rhoden, who wrote that “by
heating the metal to a cherry red, the number may be in the heated area.” However if the
area is overheated, then recovery will not be possible.

Best Practices for Serial Number Restoration

1. Determine where a serial number or other defaced information would have been
affixed on the questioned article, usually readily obvious by inspection.

2. Have a scratch pad and writing instrument at hand. Attempt to first fill in informa¬
tion that is legible before any methods are employed. Leave ample space between
the characters on the writing surface so that as characters are developed, they may
be filled in. If a character is changed, simply write the amended character under¬
neath the prior entry.

3. Prior to any restorative efforts being made, photograph the exhibit thoroughly,
with close-up emphasis on the attacked area.

4. Visually examine the area using good, direct lighting. Discern any partial or full
digits that may be legible.

5. Clean the attacked site of debris or oxidation by using a nylon brush or other non¬
abrasive item such as shop towels and any common gun oil or solvent.

6. After the initial exam with the unaided eye, it may also prove useful to use a loupe
or magnifying glass to assist in identifying the characters before performing addi¬
tional work at restoration. Excessive magnification may prove counterproductive
as it can become more difficult to discern the numbers.

7. Ascertain what material comprises the attacked surface to assist in decision mak¬
ing about what chemical reagent to use, should that route be chosen.

8. Apply desired restorative technique.

a. Nondestructive methods

b. Gentle sanding or filing

c. Chemical reagents

9. Bring in another set of eyes. Without telling the other person what your results
were, ask them to try to discern the information and compare what they see with
your results.

320

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

10. Continuously document results step by step by photograph or detailed note tak¬
ing. Be familiar with the terms obliteration, alteration, defacing, and modification.
Use the term most appropriate to the situation that you are facing.

Photographic Considerations

Firearms bearing obliterated, altered, or defaced serial numbers should be thoroughly
documented photographically. A photographic copy stand with a nonreflective back¬
ground is in order. The author has had great success using black, white, and blue back¬
grounds, the best results usually being achieved using black for the purposes of contrast.
Photographs should include both sides of the firearm to identify the specific design char¬
acteristics. Photographs should be taken of identification markings that were not subject
to attempts to obliterate, alter, or deface. Finally, photograph the area of attack in specific
detail. Remember that these photographs should be taken prior to any restorative work
being undertaken, including cleaning the site. Once the site has been cleaned, and before
restorative work begins, the area should be photographed again. At various intervals dur¬
ing the restorative work, photographs can be taken. These photographs are intended to
assist the examiner, in addition to providing a form of documentation. At some point, the
photographs may be useful to view to assist in reconstructing the serial number.

Frozen, Fixed, and Environmentally Exposed Firearms

Firearms are often discarded into bodies of water as a convenient means of disposing of the
evidence. Occasionally, firearms are dropped and lost in areas that later flood or may be
hidden and left exposed to the elements. Eventually, many such firearms are found when the
creek bed dries or someone is mowing and strikes the firearm in the thick brush. Inevitably,
these firearms are rusted shut. The first and most immediate concern is rendering the fire¬
arm safe. If the firearm is so corroded that the action cannot be opened, it is highly improb¬
able that the ammunition contained inside will have fared any better. Be that as it may,
evidence personnel and agency rules and regulations generally have something to say about
firearms that are loaded, regardless of their apparent condition. The examiner recognizes
the type of firearm and where the ammunition source is contained. As during a routine
seizure, the object is to identify and isolate the ammunition source. In the case of pistols, if
the magazine cannot be removed because it is frozen into the firearm, removing the maga¬
zine floor plate, even destructively, is the easiest way to access the ammunition. Once the
floor plate is removed, simply remove the reinforcing plate (if there is one present) and the
magazine spring, and then allow the contained cartridges to come out. This will not clear
the chamber, but it will isolate these cartridges. Tubular magazines are easily cleared by
removing the magazine follower and spilling any contained cartridges out by using gravity.

A firearm recovered in water and which has evidentiary value should be collected in
a container that can be filled with the water that the firearm came out of. Most handguns
will fit into a general-purpose plastic bucket with a fitted lid; 5-gallon buckets are ideal in
these scenarios. Long guns can generally be stored in 4-inch PVC pipe that is cut to length
and capped off on either side when the firearm is inserted and the pipe filled with source
water. Minimal, if any, exposure to open air should be permitted. Under ideal conditions,
the container should be filled with water and the firearm deposited into it right away. The
container can then be sealed and removed from the recovery site. Waterborne firearm
recovery is no different than firearm recovery under other circumstances. The possibility
of evidence remaining, however slight, should be treated as a real possibility. It is entirely

Firearm Markings

321

possible to recover latent fingerprint evidence from the firearm, magazine, and ammuni¬
tion. Firearms, even those heavily corroded, can have their markings readily restored by
using a nylon or steel brush to remove the outer layer of corrosion; oil or a cleaning agent
may be helpful as well. If the examiner has access to an ultrasonic cleaning machine of suf¬
ficient size, this works just as well.

To open a firearm that has seized shut from exposure to the elements, the author has
immersed the firearm in a bucket filled with power-steering fluid. The primary concern
with such firearms is the possibility that the firearm is loaded. The first effort should be
made to render the firearm safe by ascertaining if cartridges are loaded, then removing
them if they are. As a first preventive measure, the firing train should be disabled.

In the case of a revolver, the grips should be removed, which would reveal the main¬
spring, which then can also be removed. This removal relieves spring tension from the
hammer, essentially rendering it inert. If the revolver has removable side plates, the side
plates should be removed and the mechanical linkage (firing train) between the hammer
and trigger removed, which isolates the hammer from the trigger. The examiner should
ascertain if, for some reason, the firing pin has fixed in the extended position. If this is
the case, care must be exercised that the firing pin not be allowed to contact the loaded
cartridge; the possibility of a discharge does exist if the firearm is subjected to blows or
rough handling. The firing pin can be removed, even if forcibly, from the frame, or it could
be blocked using a thin piece of plastic or other material. If the revolver has a swing-out
cylinder, the cylinder release latch may work free if allowed to immerse in oil for a period
of time. Once the release latch works, the cylinder may be removed with hand pressure or
with the assistance of a mallet by tapping on the cylinder to get it removed. Break-open
revolvers would require that the action release be worked free if it is frozen, or that the
mechanical parts be disassembled to allow the action to open. Solid-frame revolvers are
generally the easiest to open if frozen, because the entire cylinder can be removed if the
cylinder axis pin can be removed by relieving the release button.

Opening a frozen semiautomatic pistol is approached the same way as a revolver; the
first concern is isolation of the ammunition source and rendering it safe. The principal
difference is that it is not clear whether there is a live cartridge in the chamber, barring
the presence of a loaded-chamber indicator that would tell the examiner otherwise. The
examiner should first ascertain if the pistol is breech loaded or magazine fed. In the case
of a breech-loaded example, the action-release latch is located and worked to open the
action. If it is frozen, sufficient oil should be used to break the mechanism free. If the pistol
is magazine fed, is it fed from an internal magazine or an external magazine? In the case
of an external magazine, firearms generally have a release latch that will open the maga¬
zine bottom and allow the rounds to be removed. Once the ammunition source is isolated
and removed, then attention is turned to the action. Semiautomatic pistols generally have
reciprocating slides, and the slide will have to be sufficiently soaked or lubricated to allow
it to work back and forth to clear the action.

Model Designations

The model is another piece of data that must be conspicuously displayed on the firearm,
if a model is assigned. The model can take the form of a name, number, or both. Prior to
1968 in the United States, the model number and caliber were optionally marked, but it

322

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

was not required by law. The majority of modern firearms have a model designation. In the
case of many pistols, as well as rifles and shotguns, there is simply more real estate avail¬
able on the slide or barrel to place markings than on the frame; thus information such as
the manufacturer name, city and state of manufacture, model, and caliber may appear on
the slide. However, a serial number must be affixed to the receiver, regardless of where the
other information is placed.

Most manufacturers like to maintain a level of continuity within the product lines.
Model designations can take the form of letters, numbers, names, or any combination
thereof. Models may be marketed under one model designation but conceivably could
carry a separate model number for factory use, so it is not uncommon to have a firearm
identified by a particular model name or number but also referenced by yet another model
by the manufacturer. The Taurus Judge revolver, for example, represents a series of revolv¬
ers of numerous model numbers, so designated based upon the build characteristics such
as finish, accessories, and other particulars to a specific model within a broader prod¬
uct model. Subvariants of models are common, typically used to delineate a particular
product that is somehow unique from the broader model from which it is derived. The
Mossberg 500 is another such example. The model 500 is a slide-action shotgun that can
be obtained in a multitude of configurations, as submodels of the basic 500 series include
the 500A, 500C, 500CG, 500CL, and so forth. Manufacturers guard their trademarks
carefully; however, certain names are in the public domain and are not protected, such as
the 1911 or 1911A1 designations, which are commonly used by any number of the manu¬
facturers producing a 1911-pattern pistol. Model designations can often incorporate the
caliber of the weapon as part of the designation, such as the Masterpiece Arms MPA-380,
a MAC-11 clone, MPA meaning “Masterpiece Arms” and 380 referencing the caliber of
that firearm, .380 ACP

As is the case with ammunition, firearms that have been taken into military service
will have a military model designation and will not be identified by the commercial model.
The Beretta 92, the standard U.S. military sidearm, is designated the M9. The SIG Sauer
P225 is given the designation Mil in U.S. military terminology. This is equally true with
arms in use by foreign governments. The Walther P.38 was taken into postwar Western
German service as the P.l; the P.4 was a P.l with a slightly shorter barrel. The P.5 was
a modernized version of the P.l and externally did not resemble its predecessors; there
were compact and long-barrel versions produced as well. The P.6 was manufactured by SIG
Sauer, sold commercially as the P225. The P.7, manufactured by H&K, was only ever desig¬
nated the P.7, presumably since it was designed expressly for West German police and mili¬
tary forces, and although the P.7 was sold on the commercial market, H&K never saw the
need to rebrand the firearm. This was not the case with the P.8, the German Bundeswehr
designation for the H&K USP (universal self-loading pistol) chambered in 9x19mm. The
Glock 17 is designated the Pistole 80 by the Austrian military, replacing the P.38 that had
been in use since the end of the Second World War. The Colt M16 has been manufactured
across the globe by various firms under license from Colt. The Canadian firm Diemaco’s
copy of the M16a2 is identified in Canadian military circles as the C7, itself having variants
such as the C7A1 and C7A2. The Diemaco trademark is a capital D in a stylized script. The
South Korean Pusan State Arsenal (later Daewoo Precision Industries) produced a copy
of the M16al, distinguished by its Korean ideographs on the receiver, but also marked in
English as being manufactured under license from Colt. The Filipino version of the M16
was produced by Elisco Tool Company in Manila and later by the state-controlled defense

Firearm Markings

323

arsenal. The Elisco variant is distinguished by the receiver markings indicating “Made in
Philippines” and under license from Colt.

Discovery of a firearm marked with a “nonstandard commercial designation” should
not be construed as a crime at face value. Surplus military and police firearms are fre¬
quently disposed of through commercial channels. Beretta USA markets the M9 com¬
mercially for consumers wishing to purchase one. Although military model numbers are
within the public domain and not considered to be protected intellectual property, there
are few examples where such terms are used to market nonmilitary arms, with the excep¬
tions noted. The most likely explanation is to avoid confusion in identification to avoid
mistaking a military weapon with a nonmilitary one.

Import Markings

Prior to 1968, firearms imported into the United States were required to have either the
original manufacturer’s name or the importing company’s name affixed, but not necessar¬
ily both. Since the enactment of the Gun Control Act in 1968, all firearms imported into
the United States must bear the name, city, and state of the importing firm. In addition,
the manufacturer, nation of origin, model (if assigned), and the caliber must be identi¬
fied. These markings must be made onto the receiver/frame, barrel, or slide. In lieu of full
names, recognized abbreviations may be used. The model may be an arbitrary name or
number that is assigned that firearm, and may or may not represent the actual model as
recognized by the nation of origin or other areas, such as the AK-pattern rifles imported
into the United States from Romania, which have used numerous model numbers, but
are never identified as an AK. There is no legal prohibition as such, as a model is an arbi¬
trary name or number; however, it seems logical that manufacturers and importers would
refrain from using such terminology in the interest of avoiding confusion.

Offshore manufacturers that have a domestic branch that handles the importing of
arms will ordinarily incorporate import markings into the other information affixed to the
firearm. The same model firearm may be imported by different companies, so an individual
firearm must be carefully examined to ensure that the importer of record for that arm is
properly identified. Foreign-sourced firearms that do not bear import markings were likely
imported into the country prior to 1968, but other possibilities cannot be excluded from
consideration, such as a firearm that has been smuggled into the country via surreptitious
means. Since imported firearms must indicate the nation of origin, it may be possible to
encounter nations whose names are different, such as pre-1989 German-sourced firearms
marked “West Germany.” Import markings may be small, and all possible mark-bearing
surfaces must be carefully examined. For identification purposes, the exact manufacturer
may not be readily identified; however, the nation of origin can be used in lieu of this
information. This is especially true when the arm in question was manufactured by a state
arsenal that may not have been identified. Firearms that have significant collector interest
may be inconspicuously marked so as not to detract from the collectible desirability of the
firearm, while at the same time staying within the letter of the law.

Figures 5.6 and 5.7 show examples of importer information affixed to firearms.

Confusion often arises when a firearm thought to have originated from a foreign source
lacks importer information, or when a domestically manufactured firearm bears importa¬
tion markings. Aside from the reasons previously stated, it is likely that the firearm receiver

324

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 5.6 Close-up image of the right side of a Sig Sauer P230 slide showing importer infor¬
mation; note also the German proof marks. Compare these proofs to those shown in Figures
5.15 and 5.16. The Eagle over N indicates Nitro proof after 1973; the leaf shows proofing by the
Kiel/Eckernforde proof house. The pistol was imported by Sigarms, Inc., and the legend is finely
applied to the firearm. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 5.7 Importer information crudely pin stamped to the right side of a Romanian WASR-
10 rifle, a semiautomatic copy of an AK rifle commercially imported into the United States. The
stamping sources the rifle to have been built by CN Romarm CUGIR in Romania and imported
by Century Arms International in Georgia, Vermont. (Image from author's collection.)

was domestically produced, although there may be foreign parts content. Foreign-sourced
parts kits, which would include barrels, stocks, and other nonreceiver components, are
used to assemble the complete firearm using an American-manufactured receiver. Once
again, the golden rule applies: The receiver markings are those used for the legal identi¬
fication, to the exclusion of any other markings that appear on other parts. Domestically
produced firearms appear that have import stamps affixed. In such an instance, the firearm
was exported to another country and later reimported into the United States and therefore
must have been affixed with the importer stamp. Another clue that can be looked for in
such a situation is the presence of proof marks on the firearm that are not particular to the
manufacturer but indicate that that weapon underwent an inspection in another coun¬
try. Firearms manufactured in the United States may bear an importer’s marking. If the

Firearm Markings

325

Figure 5.8 Smith St Wesson U.S. Army Model 1917 revolver. "United States Property" is
inscribed on the underside of the barrel. (Image from author's collection.)

firearm were commercially exported from the United States to a foreign nation and then
reintroduced into the United States, then the firearm must have come through a licensed
importer, with the appropriate information affixed.

Other Markings

In addition to the required markings on firearms, secondary markings may be applied by
the end user. These markings may be professionally done or be rather crude in appearance.
Typically, these markings include police department names in the form of badges, crests,
and initials. Other markings that have been observed include inventory or rack numbers,
an individual’s name, driver’s license numbers, asset tag numbers, and even social security
numbers have been applied for identification in event of theft or loss. One of the most ironic
markings that the author has encountered is a public school system numbered asset inven¬
tory control label affixed to a rifle. Certain companies that hold firearms as corporate assets
may affix their company name or crest. Manufacturer-affixed markings are encountered on
ban-era firearms marked as restricted to law enforcement/government or export only.' Pistol
versions of AR firearms may bear an inscription to indicate that the firearm is a “registered
pistol” or similar language. Since these markings could be applied postmanufacture by a
third party, such markings should be investigated if there is reason to suspect otherwise.

Historically, U.S. martial firearms have borne the inscription “United States Property,”
indicating that the firearm was military issued (see Figure 5.8). The U.S. Property mark
may appear on the receiver, slide, or barrel. Handguns, shotguns, and certain rifles taken
into U.S. military service were marked with the property stamp. If there is uncertainty
about the actual manufacturer of the firearm, the inspector stamp could be used to create
a list of candidate manufacturers. Certain military arms such as the Ml carbine and Ml
Garand will not bear the U.S. Property inscription, but martial markings were affixed to
the stock, whereas Enfield-pattern rifles manufactured in the United States will bear the
U.S. Property marking.

U.S. military arms that passed through U.S. military arsenals to be refurbished may
also have one or more arsenal markings present to indicate that they were rebuilt. In either
case, as to inspector and proof stamps or arsenal-rebuild markings, this information can¬
not always be considered reliable, as the stamp may not appear on the firearm itself, instead

The restricted markings are now archaic in the United States. The markings were only relevant 1994
2004, when the legislation expired.

326

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

appearing on the stock, which could easily have been replaced and attached to another
firearm post-rebuild. By virtue of the fact that U.S. military firearms could have been arse¬
nal refurbished a multitude of times, the receiver must serve as the basis of any defini¬
tive firearm identification. This is especially true with Model 1911 and 1911A1 handguns,
where slides and frames were routinely swapped by government arsenals, private owners,
and gunsmiths over the years. It is not uncommon to see frames made by one company but
bearing the slide markings of another company. The natural tendency is to use the slide
legend as the identifying information; however the slide markings cannot be relied upon
for a definitive identification. Model 1911 and 1911A1 frame manufacturers can be truly
identified by proof mark, serial number (different contractors were assigned different serial
number blocks, and these were not always sequential), and inspector stamp. This presump¬
tion is based upon the premise that the 1911 or 1911A1 in question is an authentic period
piece, as modern copies that replicate period examples have been manufactured by Colt,
Auto Ordnance, and others.

National Crests

Historically, many nations who took arms into service had their national crest or icon
affixed to the firearm. This practice was used to show ownership, instill a sense of pride
and patriotism, and even for political purposes. The practice was especially prevalent in
the late nineteenth century and up until the middle of the twentieth century. The Mauser
98-pattern rifle was widely exported and used by over 50 nations over its service life that
exceeded half a century. Practically every nation that purchased a 98-pattern rifle, whether
it was manufactured in Germany or another country, had its national crest affixed to the
receiver (see Figure 5.9). It was not uncommon for any European nation to affix its national
symbol to a weapon (see Figure 5.10), respective to the era when those crests or emblems
were used, especially if the nation in question was a monarchy.

The Soviet Union stamped many, but not all, firearms with a hammer and sickle on the
receiver. The presence of such a marking would indicate that firearm was made after the
October 1917 revolution that deposed the tsarist rule over the country. The practice contin¬
ued until the early 1950s, when the hammer and sickle was replaced by a star on the receiver.
The practice appears to have ended with the transition to the AK-47, when only arsenal

Figure 5.9 The receiver markings of a Model 1937 Short Rifle, the Portuguese designation for
the Mauser 98 pattern taken into service in 1937. The 1937 mark indicates the year of produc¬
tion, a standard marking that appears on Model 98 rifles. The emblem is the Portuguese crest
and appeared on Model 98 rifles exported to Portugal from Mauser in Germany. (Image from
author's collection.)

Firearm Markings

327

Figure 5.10 The Swiss cross affixed to the receiver ring of a Schmitt Rubin rifle. The Schmitt
Rubin was a bolt-action rifle, using a straight-pull bolt. These rifles were used by Switzerland
for some 80 years in various configurations. The cross is found on other arms used by the Swiss,
including Luger pistols and Vetterli rifles. (Image from author's collection.)

markings were affixed to the left side of the trunnion, since there was no room on top of the
receiver like there was on a Mosin-Nagant rifle or an SKS (Simonov Carbine Self-Loading).

The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) emblem—a Star of David and an olive leaf—appears
on Galil rifles, Mauser 98 rifles, and others used in IDF service. In addition, nonstandard,
arsenal, or field-applied markings can also be observed, particularly on surplus weapons
from around the world and may include symbols of faith, breakaway or revolutionary
movements, and so forth.

Arsenal Markings

Absent trademarks, nations with state-operated arsenals will use the emblem or icon of the
producing arsenal to identify the manufacturer; this is especially the case with Eastern Bloc
weapons and other nations where arms production is a state enterprise (see Figure 5.11).
Generally the same information can be used to identify both the firearm and ammunition.
World War II Japanese arms were marked with the symbol of the producing arsenal, with
the balance of the information in kanji (see Figure 5.12). Arsenal markings may also cor¬
respond to proof marks, as in the case of Russian firearms.

World War II-era Nazi firearms were stamped using a system of codes that were
developed and evolved from the prewar era. Manufacturers involved in war industries
were assigned a secret ordnance code. The code system changed from letters, numbers,
and a mixed combination of letters and numbers to a series of letters from one to three
characters in length. There were literally thousands of codes that covered manufactur¬
ers of small arms, ammunition, instruments, and even holsters and field equipment.
Nazi-era firearms bearing commercial manufacturer information were typically not
taken into military service but were intended for export or use by civic, political, or
paramilitary organizations. Outside of collector interest, there is probably little need
for an investigator to ascertain the precise manufacturer of such a firearm; often simply
identifying the model of the firearm is sufficient. Table 5.1 shows select World War II
German ordnance codes.

328

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Figure 5.11 A Polish P64 pistol, based on the Walther PP. The year of manufacture is 1970; the
arsenal is indicated by the circle 11 icon, indicating production by the Radom Arsenal. (Image
from author's collection.)

Figure 5.12 A wartime Japanese Type 14 pistol, but simply known as the "Nambu," a generic
term for the series of pistols of this design. The basic design mimics the Luger or Lahti pistol.
(Image from author's collection.)

Table 5.1 Select World War II German Ordnance Codes

Manufacturer

Ordnance Code

Berlin Luebecker Maschinenfabrik

237, duv

Boehmische Waffenfabrik, Prague

fnh

Carl Walther Waffenfabrik

480, ac

Gustloff Werke, Weimar

bed

J.P. Sauer & Son, Suhl

147, ce

Mauser Werke, Borsigwalde

S243, ar

Mauser Werke, Oberndorf

S/42, 42, byf, svw

Spreewerke

cyq, cvq

Steyr-Daimler-Pugh, Steyr, Austria

660, bnz

Firearm Markings

329

Germany was not the only nation concerned with industrial security and its industrial
base coming under attack or sabotage. During the Second World War, the United Kingdom
also devised a series of factory codes to identify firms engaged in war work. The United
Kingdom was divided into three geographic zones or regions: North, Midlands, and the
South. Each producer was assigned a letter prefix and a one- to three-digit numerical code,
such as M/78, which stood for Elkington & Co. located in the British Midlands; S33 for
Essex Engineering Works on the southeast coast of England; or M/47C for Birmingham
Small Arms Factory in Shirley. The slash to separate the prefix with the number code was
inconsistently used, so it may or may not appear on any marked article (Jones 2010). There
are likely hundreds, if not thousands, of these codes that were used, and the exact identity
of many of these firms has been lost to history.

Patent Dates, Legends, and Other Information

Firearms typically contain some design feature or other matter that bears protection by the
granting of a patent or at least an indication of patent pending. If a patent for said firearm
has been issued, the patent number and sometimes a date of issue will appear on the article.
If the firearm has been manufactured under license from the patent holder or is using some
patented feature licensed by another, then that information will appear on the firearm as
well, typically on the receiver. Patent information can be applied for the purposes of iden¬
tification in several ways:

• The firearm must have been manufactured after the last patent date stamped, giv¬
ing the examiner a general idea of when the firearm would have been manufac¬
tured, at least within a time period of approximately 20 years of the last shown date.
Obviously, firearms bearing “Patent Pending” are the earlier examples of such.

• If the firearm was not manufactured by the originating company or if the mark¬
ings are absent that preclude manufacturer identification, the patent information
can be used to trace back to the original firm or individual holding the patent.

• When faced with a legal challenge that the article was designed, redesigned, or
manufactured as a firearm, the patent information can readily establish that the
article or exhibit in question was in fact defined as such.

Proof Marks

The use of proof marks to identify firearms is well established. No less than Calvin Goddard
himself, the father of the science of firearm identification, researched and published exten¬
sively on the subject. A proof mark is an indication that a particular firearm or firearm com¬
ponent—such as a barrel, frame, slide, or other piece—was inspected and test fired to ensure
the quality of the firearm construction. Various grades of proof were given for various fire¬
arms, the proof stamp literally providing prospective buyers with the “proof” or evidence
that the purchase they were contemplating had been independently tested and certified to
the standard that the proof established. As such, various proof marks were created for arms
that used black powder, arms that used smokeless powder, arms that were smooth bore, and
so forth. Proofs and proof marking tend to be underwritten by government entities and are

330

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

subject to formal legislative enforcement where proofing has a long and detailed history for
both civilian and military arms, especially in European nations.

U.S. Commercial Proof Marks

The United States has never adopted formal proofing in the European tradition; U.S.-based
arms makers did not engage in proofing to the degree of European arms makers, and the U.S.
government never enacted laws requiring such markings or inspections. This is not to say
that American arms were not tested before leaving the factory, but definitive, standardized
proofing in the sense of the European tradition never came into being. Rather than relying
on government bureaucracy or third parties, some American manufacturers opted to vol¬
untarily proof mark their products based upon internal quality inspection. The American
manufacturers who entered into proofing appear to have followed the standards set by the
Birmingham, England, proof house. Remington Arms products are found with a myriad
of markings and symbols on the barrel indicating in-house quality assurance inspections,
and will be found bearing the REP marking, meaning “Remington English Proof.” Colt
handguns carry a small triangle bearing the letters VP, meaning “Verified Proof,” which are
usually affixed on the left-hand side of the frame on the trigger guard. Iver Johnson used as
P within a circle as a provisional proof, and IPJ as a definitive proof. O.F. Mossberg has used
a similar circle P for their shotguns. Figure 5.13 shows some of these proofs.

Proof Marks Used around the World

A proof mark can place the manufacture of a firearm within a particular era, or indicate a
particular manufacturer or at least geographically where the firearm was made. Collectors,
especially those whose interest is focused on military arms, look very closely for the evidence
of ordnance stamps and proof marks to ensure that the piece they are contemplating for
purchase is “right.” Modern-era firearms may bear a plurality of proof marks. The weapon
may exhibit proof marks from the factory where it was originally manufactured, but then
may bear additional markings indicating it was taken into service in another nation that had
additional inspection requirements above and beyond the initial factory testing. This may
be further complicated by arms that changed hands again from one user to another, when
the subsequent user required his or her own proofing requirements be satisfied. Figures 5.14
through 5.27 show proof marks from Austria (Figure 5.14), Belgium (Figure 5.15), England
(Figure 5.16), Czechoslovakia (Figure 5.17), Finland (Figure 5.18), France (Figure 5.19),
Germany (Figures 5.20 and 5.21), Hungary (Figure 5.22), Ireland (Figure 5.23), Italy
(Figure 5.24), Russia (Figure 5.25), Spain (Figure 5.26), and Yugoslavia (Figure 5.27).

(Verified Proof) Marlin 4 6

Remington Winchester

Figure 5.13 Proof marks of select U.S. manufacturers. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification
Guide.)

Firearm Markings

331

n b

1 2

Provisional Provisional

Proof Proof

(Vienna) (Ferlach)

N? N2

7 8

Nitro Nitro

1891-1931 1891-1928

(Ferlach) (Budapest)

3 4

Definitive Definitive

Black Powder Black Powder

(Vienna) (Ferlach)

N3 ^BH

9 10

Nitro Preliminary

1891-1931 Proof

(Weipert) (Bundesheer)

N? I«

5 6

Nitro Nitro

Proof 1891 to date

(Vienna) (Ferlach)

11 * 12 *

Ammunition Reinforced

Inspection Magnum

(Ferlach & Vienna) (Ferlach & Vienna)

Figure 5.14 Austrian proof marks. * indicates that the proof mark is not unique to a single
proof house. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

Muzzle Loading
Black Powder

Definitive
Foreign Arms

Ammunition

Control

Black Powder &
Military Nitro

Provisional

Proof

Optional
Provisional Proof

10 *

Double

Provisional

Nitro

Proof

11 *

Triple

Provisional

Nitro

Superior Proof

12 *

Former

Definitive

p.v

13*

14*

15*

16*

17*

Rifled

View Stamp &

Nitro

Ammunition

Arms

Inspection Mark

Proof

Superior Proof

Inspection

Figure 5.15 Belgian proof marks. * indicates that this proof mark was used prior to 1968, and
may still be in use. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

United States Military

The U.S. military used a system of inspectors to ensure quality standards on mar¬
tial firearms, and their inspector mark, usually in the form of their initials, graced
frames and stocks of firearms that passed through their hands. Two- and three-letter
initials were used by the army inspectors, and many of them had long careers. The
first proofed martial firearm is thought to have been manufactured around 1800. U.S.
military inspectors in that sense phased out as the government left the making of

332

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Definitive
Company Proof
(Birmingham)

y**

Definitive
View Stamp
(Birmingham)

8 **

Definitive
Barrel Proof
(London)

NITRO PROOF

9**

Definitive
Barrel Proof
(Birmingham)

10 "*

5 **

Definitive
Nitro Proof
(London)

11 **&***

Definitive

Provisional

View Stamp

Nitro

Proof

(London)

(Birmingham)

(London)

(Birmingham)

(London)

fp"

NOT NITRO

15"""

16 ***

^y***

lg**&*»*

Definitive Nitro Definitive Nitro

Definitive

Special

-on barrel

Proof

Black Powder

Definitive

(London)

(Birmingham)

(London)

(Birmingham)

(London)

BP <p

6** 13***

Definitive Definitive Nitro
Black Powder -on action
(Birmingham) (London)

12**&*** i9**&***

Provisional Special
Proof Definitive

(Birmingham) (Birmingham)

20 **&***

Reproof

(London)

21**&***

Reproof

(Birmingham)

Figure 5.16 British proof marks. * indicates 1904 rules of proof. ** indicates 1925 rules of
proof. *** indicates 1954, 1986, and 1989 rules of proof. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification
Guide.)

Voluntary

Provisional

(Shotguns)

2 3

Definitive Definitive

Nitro (Rifles, Pistols

(Shotguns) & Revolvers)

Ammunition

Inspection

Mark

Figure 5.17 Czechoslovakian proof marks. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

Definitive

Proof

Mark

Definitive
Black Powder
Proof

Proof

Superieure

(Magnum)

Ammunition

Inspection

Mark

Figure 5.18 Finnish proof marks. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

military arms to commercial manufacturers. The U.S. martial proof mark was the
flaming bomb, the emblem of the U.S. Army Ordnance Corp, and this can be found
on frames, receivers, and even smaller parts on certain firearms. Various other forms
of the letter P, often coupled with a V and even an eagle’s head have been used by
U.S. arsenals going back to the eighteenth century. In more modern times, the U.S.

Firearm Markings

333

ST Etienne

Provisional
Barrel Proof
(Optional)
lb-(Double Proof)

lc-(Triple Proof)

Definitive
Black Powder
Proof

ST Etienne

Definitive Definitive Definitive Nitro Definitive Nitro

Nitro Proof Nitro Proof (Domestic (Foreign

(Domestic Rifles) (Foreign Rifles) Short Arms) Short Arms)

P.T.

Definitive

Nitro

Proof

Black

Nitro

Powder Reproof

Reproof Mark

.rS

Supplemental

Finished

Arms

C.I.P.

A — I- 1

+x +

/+'

Sample

Neutralism

Ammunition

or Model

Mark

Inspection

Proof (Ex-Military Arms) Mark

■&

Isi

P.T.

16*

17*

Definitive

Black Powder

Nitro

Proof

\ir

P.T.

Superior

Definitive

Proof

\tr

Superior

Nitro

Proof

18*

Supplemental

Finished

Arms

Figure 5.19 French proof marks. * denotes marks used in the proof house at St. Etienne and
Paris. The Parisian proof house marks are seldom seen. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification
Guide.)

6 * 7*

Ulm Koln

(Baden (Cologne)

Wurttemberg)

W G

24** 25 **

Mellichstadt

16 **

Figure 5.20 German proof marks. * indicates the German proof houses post-1955. ** indi¬
cates prewar proof marks. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

ordnance marking was a P surrounded by a circle, which underwent several minor
style revisions until the practice was discontinued in 1968. Other forms of U.S. martial
proof marking included the use of an eagle head and a number to indicate inspection
at the Springfield Arsenal, as well as two- and three-digit inspector name abbrevia¬
tions. Additional, nonstandard markings would include the names of a ship or base
where the firearm was in arsenal inventory.

334

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

(&)

2p***

22****

2 o**«*

2^****

21-25

26***»*

22*****

Definitive

Superior

Reproof

Definitive

Eagle

Provisional

Voluntary

Nitro

Magnum

Mark

Black Powder

Blank Guns

may appear in

Proof

Handgun Proof

(post 1973)

stylized form

(pre 1973)

Flobert Rifle KielOakleaf Definitive Definitive Superior

Proof -Eckernforde- Proof Proof Proof

(pre 1973) (pre 1973) (Suhl) (Blank Guns) (Magnum)

Proof Ammunition Ammunition

after Inspection Inspection

Repair (Ulm) (Berlin)

G N

2fo****** ^y******

Black Nitro

Powder Proof

(Rifled Bore) Mark

Reproof Black

after Powder

Repair (Smoothbore)

# #

u w

^_Q****** ^•^*****#

Inspection Definitive
Proof Proof

Mark (Choked Bore)

Figure 5.21 Additional German proof marks. *** indicates post-1973 proof for West Germany.
**** indicates a pre-1973 proof for West Germany. ***** indicates proof mark used solely by the
Suhl proof house. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

Voluntary

Definitive

Reproof

Superior

Ammunition

Provisional

Proof

after

Magnum

Inspection

Proof

(in the white)

Repair

Proof

Mark

Figure 5.22 Hungarian proof marks. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

Provisional &
Definitive Proof
(Shotguns)

Figure 5.23 Irish proof mark. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

Firearm Markings

335

1 2

Provisional

Proof

Superseded by

Mark

Mark No. 1

Reproof Ammunition

Mark Inspection

PSF

Definitive

Smokeless

Powder

PSF FINITO

Final

Smokeless

Proof

PSF

Magnum or
Superior
Proof

Definitive
Black Powder
Proof

Figure 5.24 Italian proof marks. Note that the provisional mark represented by the crest of
arms of Gardone Val Trompia. PSF means polvere sensa fumo (smokeless powder). The bore
diameter in gauge, caliber, or millimeters may be stamped. The barrel weight (expressed in
kilograms) may also be present. A note about Italian proofing: If the firearm was proofed before
1954, Arabic numerals were used to indicate the date. From 1954, a code of Roman numerals
was used. From 1975, the year is indicated by a two-digit date in a rectangle. (Source: BATFE
Firearms Identification Guide.)

(!)

2**

4**

6“'

y**

8 "

9 "

Factory

Quality

Proof

Control

(Tula)

(Izhevsk)

Mark

<$>

CE>

10“'

11"

12**

13"

14"

15"

16"

17"

18"

Provisional

Definitive

Provisional

Definitive

Quality

Black

Control

Powder

Mark

(Tula)

(Izhevsk)

Figure 5.25 Russian proof marks for Tula and Izhevsk. * indicates markings used prior to 1917.
** indicates markings that were used after 1950. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

Wartime firearms that fell under the wartime Lend-Lease program to the British
Commonwealth carry myriad markings. Such arms may be marked “United States
Property” and carry U.S. ordnance inspector stamps, but will also appear with markings
such as NOT ENGLISH MAKE, foreign proof marks, and other service marks such as
RNZAF (Royal New Zealand Air Force), RAAF (Royal Austrian Air Force), and RFC (Royal
Flying Corps). The standard British proof mark seen on firearms they used is BNP, meaning
British Nitro Proof; typically there is also a stamp that indicates what the pressure test load
was, expressed in pounds per square inch. Collectors who specialize in the field can glean
additional information from the various markings on such firearms. Surplus U.S. military
arms can be found with any variation of markings present, indicating that any number of
organizations took the weapons into service after they were released by the military.

336

Cartridges and Firearm Identification

Definitive

Proof

(Unique to Eibar)

Definitive
Black Powder
(Muzzle-loading
Smoothbore)

Provisional
Black Powder
(Breech-loading
Smoothbore)

Obligatory
Nitro Proof
(Shotgun)

“a*

Supplementary
Magnum Nitro
(B-Shotguns)

6 <&

7 8

Definitive Definitive

Proof Proof

(Rifles) (Foreign Arms)

☆

Definitive

Proof

(Small Bore)

Ammunition

Inspection

Mark

Figure 5.26 Spanish proof marks for the proof house of Eibar. (Source: BATFE Firearms
Identification Guide.)

ClB

b!b

★ ★

bIb

Definitive

Superior

Supplemental

Black Powder

Nitro

Proof

(Finished Arms)

cfe

[CD

Reproof

Voluntary

Definitive

for

Provisional

Proof

(Black Powder)

(Nitro)

Proof

Mark

International

Definitive

Ammunition

Impressed

Mark

Proof

Inspection

on breech

(Barrels)

(Foreign Arms)

Mark

Figure 5.27 Yugoslavian proof marks. Kargujevec is the established proof house, established
in 1969. (Source: BATFE Firearms Identification Guide.)

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by felons, others prohibited from buying bullets, http://www.rand.org/congress/lnewsletters/
safety_justice/1106/ammunition.html.

Truscott, C. J. 2005. ATF regulations and rulings. ATF Rul. 2005-4. http://www.atf.gov/regulations-
rulings/rulings/atf-rulings/atf-ruling-2005-4.pdf.

TulAmmoUSA. 2010. Home page, http://tulammousa.com/.

United Nations Comtrade. 2009. United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database, http://
comtrade.un.org/db/dqBasicQueryResults.aspx?px=HS&cc=93&r=842&p=0&rg=l&y=2010,
2009,2008,2007,2006&so=8.

U.S. Army Environmental Command. 2008. Environmental update, http://aec.army.mil/usaec/
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Watson III, A. 1984. Small caliber ammunition identification guide. U.S. Army Intelligence Agency,
Defense Intelligence Agency. Charlottesville, VA: Foreign Science and Technology Center.

Westenberger, P. H. 1972. Wards Western field manufacturer identification code. Association of
Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners J. 4 (4): 16.

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Figure 1.1 A semiautomatic rifle action is opened, revealing the presence of a live cartridge in
the chamber. Such a find can be of great investigative interest. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 2.3 A cross-section of various size shot shells, from left to right: 12-gauge 314" Super
Magnum, 12-gauge 3" Magnum, 12-gauge 216-gauge 2%", 20-gauge 2Aguila 12-gauge
114", and .410 3" shell. (Images from author's collection.)

Figure 2.9 Caseless-telescoped cartridges. (Image courtesy of Paul Shipley, AAI Corporation.)

Figure 2.10 Daisy V/L caseless cartridges. The bare lead projectile is seated against the yellow¬
ish, granular propellant charge. The plastic tube is the container the cartridges were shipped in.
(Image from author's collection.)

Figure 2.12 Example of 5.56x45mm M855 "Green Tip" cartridges on stripper clips. Note the
annealed casing neck. (U.S. Marine Corps image; photographer Cpl. Lydia M. Davey, USMC.)

Figure 2.14 The 5.56x45mm M855A1 EPR. Note the gap between the tip and projectile body
and the cannelure on the projectile itself. (U.S. Army image; photographer Todd Mozes.)

Figure 2.18 A cutaway image of the Hornady Critical Defense cartridge. (Image courtesy of
Hornady Manufacturing.)

Figure 2.20 The pop culture phenomenon of a world taken over by zombies prompted Hornady
to release a line of "zombie killing" ammunition, a rather jocular bit of marketing. (Image
courtesy of Hornady Manufacturing.)

Figure 2.28 Examples of various dummy, drilled, and inert cartridges (from left to right): safety
orange marked 9x19mm, drilled casing 9x19mm, solid black plastic 5.56x45mm, corrugated
casing 5.56x45mm, and a 12-gauge shell marked DUMMY. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 2.34 The Glock 17T is dedicated exclusively for training. The frame is blue polymer
to clearly identify it as a training aid. Also depicted is the magazine with blue floor plate for
identification. Note the Simunition cartridge loaded in the magazine. (Image from author's
collection.)

Figure 2.37 Swedish 6.5mm cartridges loaded with wooden projectiles. (Image from author's
collection.)

Figure 2.38 U.S. Military .50 BMG (12.7x99mm) color-coding scheme. (From U.S. Army
Technical Manual TM 9-1300-200, 1993.)

Figure 2.39 U.S. Marine Lance Corporal Richard Mueller mans a turret-mounted M2.50
machine gun. The ammunition load consists of armor-piercing incendiary (gray bands) and
armor-piercing tracer (red over gray bands) cartridges. (Image from U.S. Marine Corps,- photog¬
rapher Gunnery Sgt. Scott Dunn, USMC.)

Ball Blank

High-pressure test (HPT)

Tracer

Match

Ball, Frangible

Dummy, Inert-loaded

Dummy Duplex

Rifle grenade

Figure 2.40 U.S. military 7.62x51mm color-coding scheme. (From U.S. Army Technical
Manual TM 9-1300-200, 1993.)

Figure 3.2 A study of two Chinese-sourced cartridge head stamps. On the left is a typical
example of 7.62x51mm ammunition of Chinese origin using block characters. The 61 indicates
the factory number; 92 indicates that this cartridge was manufactured in 1992. The exam¬
ple on the right, also 7.62x51mm, is a forgery. The head stamp indicates production by Royal
Ordnance Radway Green in 1960, complete with NATO standard cross. L2A2 was the British
military designation for the 7.62x51mm NATO ball cartridge. Both examples are of similar
construction; the casing is copper-plated steel. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 3.4 An assortment of 5.56x45mm/.223 cartridge head stamps. Top row from left:
Precision Metal Corp.; Poongsan Corp. Korea (October 1981); Federal Cartridge (2005); Hornady
Manufacturing; International Cartridge Corp.; Hornady Manufacturing. Bottom row from left:
Lake City Ordnance Plant (2002); Lake City Ordnance Plant (nickel plated) (2005); Lake City
Ordnance Plant (1975); Winchester Cartridge Corp. (2001); Barnaul Cartridge Plant Russia; Wolf
Performance Ammunition. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 3.5 An assortment of commonly encountered 7.62x39mm cartridge head stamps.
Top row from left: Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant Russia (2000); Barnaul Cartridge
Plant Russia (newer logo); Barnaul Cartridge Plant Russia (earlier logo); Barnaul Cartridge Plant
Russia (1995); Tulammo Russia; Federal State Enterprise Production Amursk Cartridge Plant
Vympel. Middle row from left: Four varieties of Wolf Performance Ammunition head stamps;
Igman, Bosnia-Herzegovina (1981). Bottom row from left: Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition
Plant (1993); Pretoria Metal Pressing (1988); China State Factory 71 (1991); China State Factory
31 (1971); Winchester Cartridge. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 3.6 An assortment of 7.6x51mm/.308 cartridge head stamps. Top row from left: Wolf
Performance Ammunition; China State Factory 61; Giraites Ginkluotes Gamykla (2004);
Federal Cartridge. Bottom row from left: Gevelot S.A.; Lake City Ordnance Plant; Remington
Peters. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 3.9 The 7.92x57mm cartridge remained popular even after the Second World War, and
production continued because of its widespread use around the world and the large amount of
surplus German arms in circulation. Top row from left: East Germany Factory 04 (I960); Prvi
Partizan, Yugoslavia (1955); Kirikkale/Ankara, Turkey (1940); and prewar German production
(1934)—note P126 code. Bottom row from left: Two variations of Czechoslovakian production
by Povazske Strojarne/Povazska Bystrica (late 1940s); and Ammunitions Arsenalet Denmark
(1954), often called the 8mm Mauser. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 3.10 Ammunition under investigation in Baghdad, Iraq, in 2006. Closer inspection
of the casing head stamp reveals liny for Prvi Partizan; the year 2002 is also marked. Other
identifying characteristics to look at include the brass casing and the distinctively red primer
sealant, a color unique to Prvi Partizan. (U.S. Air Force image; photograph by Technical Sgt.
Adrian Cadiz.)

Figure 4.1 The Raven MP-25. Part of the identification markings are on left side of the slide
(pictured); the model and caliber are on the opposite side. The serial number is stamped on
the back strap of the grip. The Raven pistols are grouped as one of the Saturday night specials;
untold millions were made, and they routinely turn up. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.20 Stoeger Air Gun X20 suppressor schematic showing baffles and an expansion
chamber. (Image courtesy of Benelli USA.)

Figure 4.28 The Uzi submachine gun. The depicted examples were manufactured as sub¬
machine guns by Israeli Military Industries in Israel and are so marked on the left side of
the receiver as Uzi SMG. The English-marked selector switch is above the trigger, depicted
In the lower example. Hebrew-marked selectors are also encountered. (Image from author's
collection.)

Figure 4.34 The Taurus PT738.380 ACP pistol. This example has a frame molded of pink
polymer with a blackened stainless steel slide. The colored appearance of an apparent firearm
cannot be relied upon to distinguish that the object is not a real firearm. (Image courtesy of
Taurus International Manufacturing, Inc.)

Figure 4.35 The Glock 22P. The 22P is an inert training aid used to familiarize the user with
the pistol without the risk of handling a firearm that could become loaded. The pistol accepts a
magazine, and the trigger is fully functional, but the barrel is solid. The red frame is meant to
alert the user that this example is inert. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.55 A U.S. Rifle M14 manufactured by Harrington St Richardson is a machine gun.
This example bears the circle P proof mark and eagle cartouche on the stock. (Image from
author's collection.)

Figure 4.56 Close-up of the receiver markings of the H&R M14. Note the selector switch
knob on the right side of the receiver. Semiautomatic copies of the M14 generally do not have
the notch cut in the stock for the selector, although surplus stocks in circulation may or may
not be cut for the selector. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.57 The M14-pattern rifle manufactured by Beretta as the BM59. There are definite
similarities, but note the distinct differences between the M14 and the BM59. This example has
a bipod, a grenade-launcher spigot on the muzzle, a grenade-launching ladder-type sight, and a
pistol grip instead of a standard rifle stock. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.58 Close-up of the BM59 receiver. Note the selector switch on the left side and the
"P.B. BM59" marking on the action-lock button. The marking practices used by Beretta on
the BM59 mimicked other manufacturers of the M14. Barely visible on the receiver below the
sight-adjustment knob is the importer's mark "Springfield Armory," not to be mistaken for the
government arsenal. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.65 The FN SCAR 16S, chambered in 5.56x45mm. Also pictured is the FN two-tone
STANAG magazine. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 4.66 A contrast between the upper receivers of the FN SCAR 16S (top) and an AR-15
(bottom). The bolt carrier groups have been removed to contrast the differences between the
two. The SCAR is operated by gas piston; the AR uses the traditional gas impingement. Installed
on the AR upper receiver is a Knight's Armament RAS free-floating rail system, an aftermar¬
ket flash hider, a MaTech rear sight, a Knight's Armament vertical fore grip, and an Aimpoint
Comp M4 using a Knight's Armament mount. (Image from author's collection.)

Figure 5.3 This 1913 vintage Colt 1911 has had its original serial number ground from the
frame, and it has been renumbered. It is apparent that this was historical and likely done at the
factory or at a government arsenal. The United States Property marking has also been obliter¬
ated from the frame by grinding and then stamping a series of X's across that part of the frame.
Students of the 1911 will note the crude stamping as well as the die being inconsistent with
that used by Colt. (Image from author's collection.)

FORENSICS & CRIMINAL JUSTICE

Cartridges and
Firearm Identification

At a time when crime scene television shows are all the rage amongst the civilian population, knowledge
of firearm forensics is of paramount importance to crime scene analysts, police detectives, and attorneys
for both the prosecution and the defense. Cartridges and Firearm Identification brings together
a unique, multidisciplined approach to questions that arise regarding ammunition and firearms within
the context of investigation. Supplying essential practical information about firearms and ammunition
in a clear, easy-to-follow format, this volume:

• Defines and depicts photographically all varieties of firearms

• Presents investigative concerns of firearms evidence from the perspectives of evidence preservation
and safe handling procedures

• Introduces readers to the standards of measurement used to classify ammunition,
including the significance of names, adjectives, and other descriptors used in conjunction with
ammunition cartridges

• Categorizes and identifies ammunition head stamps from cartridges produced around the world

• Provides ammunition manufacturing practices for dozens of nations

The text offers a methodology for the identification of unknown firearms as well as ammunition of
questioned identity. The author explains the terminology and describes each group of firearms and the
aspects that identify the weaponry—including property marks, proof marks, and patent dates. Lavishly
illustrated, this comprehensive reference includes case studies to support the text, making it a premier
reference for all those responsible for the complicated task of investigating firearms and cartridges.

K14417

CRC Press

Taylor &.Francis Group
an informa business

www.taylorandfrancisgroup.com

6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 1001 7
2 Park Square, Milton Park
Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK

ISBN: TTA-l-MbbS-OEDb-E

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